Islam & Mental Health

Author: T. A. Baasher
Professor of Psychiatry
Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan.

Summary
This paper discusses the importance of a spiritual element in health with particular reference to mental health and Islam. The Islamic spiritual quest is outlined and some directives described. Specific examples are given of their application to health.

Introduction
When considering the Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000, the World Health Assembly in 1984 rightly stressed the importance of the spiritual element in health. Importantly, it was also decided that this implies "a phenomenon that is not material in nature but belongs to the realm of ideas, beliefs, values and ethics that have arisen in the minds and conscience of human beings" [1]. It was also affirmed that these "ennobling ideas have not only stimulated worldwide action for health but have also given to health, as defined in WHO’s constitution, an added spiritual dimension". This timely and meaningful worldwide resolution has revived major interest in and given a new impetus to the role of these basic human elements in the promotion of health and in the appropriate understanding of the psycho-religious and psycho-spiritual features in the mental health field [2]. Indeed, Jung, in his famous book ‘Modern man in search of a soul’, emphasized the importance of religion in attaining psychological health and enjoying a normal state of mental well-being [3]. He described that people from all civilized countries of the earth had consulted him and that among all his patients in the second half of life, there was not one whose problem was not that of finding a religious outlook in life. He rightly concluded that it was high time for the clergymen and psychotherapists to join forces to meet this great spiritual task.

In this paper, an attempt will be made to describe rather briefly the growing challenges of mental illnesses, highlight the Islamic quest, the related religious principles, and outline examples of the therapeutic implications with due emphasis on the promotion of cognitive development, effective psychosocial adjustment and coping abilities.

Challenge of mental health problems
Despite all manner of differences in methodology in the nature and conditions of the studied population or in the researcher’s zeal and attitude, the fact still remains that mental health problems in both industrialized and developing countries are generally immense and widely distributed [4–11].

In spite of all the efforts made by countries for the prevention of mental health problems, the data available indicate that in 100 population anywhere in the world, industrialized or developing, there are on average 6–8 people who suffer from mental or neurological disorders or who depend on alcohol or misuse of drugs. Several more suffer from somatic problems due to psychological causes or are the victims of deviant behaviour.

In recent years, the challenge of mental health has become even more acute in the face of emerging multi-dimentional epidemics of modern times, notably drug-related problems, crimes of all sorts and the psychosocial and medical problems of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) [12]. Furthermore, with regard to alcoholism, for example, Smith reported that, "despite an increasing body of evidence of the breadth, depth and gravity of harm done by alcohol in Britain, the message does not seem to be getting through to either the government or the public that something needs to be done" [13].
Significantly, even in countries with advanced health care services, approximately one-third of the patients in general practice with psychiatric illness may not have their mental health problems identified and hence they may not be appropriately treated.

It is clear therefore that the challenge of mental health problems is immense and complex. Hence, the search continues for the development of more effective alternative treatment modalities, with a move away from the limited psychoanalytical technique to the behaviouristic, to the humanistic and recently to the transpersonal and more holistic approaches. An example of the latter is the development of the multifaceted model of psycho-syntheses [14]. Besides the personal and social factors, great emphasis has been given in this model to the religious quest and the search for a fundamental, meaningful spiritual life.

The Islamic quest
An important feature of the Islamic quest is the scrutiny of the basic human make-up, the inner weaknesses, potential qualities and the need to follow the right path to attain a healthy state of mind and lead a meaningful life.

Essentially, the correct understanding of the inner self and the uncovering of its hidden elements should lead to the recognition of the divine Creator and of the holy God. This was clearly ordained, for example, in the following holy Quranic verses. ‘We shall show them our portents on the horizons and within themselves until it will be manifest unto them it is the Truth’ (41:53), and ‘And in the earth are portents for those whose truth is sure. And in yourselves. Can you then not see?’ (5l:20–1). In this respect the quest for seeing and believing needs to be well conceived within the religious context and within the wider perspective of faith and within the inner complex mechanism of thinking and feeling.

The Islamic directives
Essentially, the Islamic directives emphasize human integrity, the rights of others, and wisdom and reason. This is clearly stated in the Quran, sura 16, verse 125.

Furthermore, within the framework of the basic and clear human directives for a firm belief, for securing equity and ensuring social welfare and for endurance of hardship and resolution of stress, humans have been given the right to choose and the ability to decide (sura 33, verse 72). This is indeed the supreme belief in and entrustment of humankind on earth.
Along with these guiding directives for a healthy way of life, Muslims are specifically reminded of their inner weaknesses, which they must overcome through religious devotion and useful work (sura 95, verses 4–6). As explained by Wagdy [15], the Quran describes the sharp contrast between the magnificent physical development of humans and their inner emotional turmoil and their inherent tendency to cruelty, passionate reactions, greediness and aggressive behaviour. Hence, as part of their destiny in life, humans have to face these human weaknesses and strive hard to overcome them.

Thus from a practical point of view, the Islamic directives provide a clear way for leading a meaningful psychosocial life and enjoying a healthy mental state. In sura 2, verse 177 of the Quran, for instance, it is clearly stated that: it is not righteousness that you turn your face to the East and the West, but righteousness is to believe in Allah, the Last Day, and the Angels and the Scriptures and the Prophets and give wealth, in spite of love for it, to kinsfolk, orphans, the poor and the wayfarer and to those who ask, and set slaves free, and observe the proper worship and pay the poor their due. And those who keep their promises when they make one, and the patient in tribulation and adversity and time of stress. These are the sincere and the pious.

Islam and mental health care
In what way can Islam promote quality of life and help us deal with some of the challenging mental health problems?

Strategic approaches
In general the Islamic scriptures deal with a number of psychosocial issues, including marital relationships, family care, child rearing, adoption, orphans, women, virtue, love, mercy, truthfulness, justice, modesty, as well as other topics that include well-defined guiding principles for healthy living and for the promotion of the quality of life.

Essentially, the Islamic strategy for the promotion of mental well-being is based on the recognition of the inherent human defects and emotional weaknesses and hence calls for systematic developments and constructive enactments to overcome them.

In the daily Islamic practice, in the five-time daily prayers, the believer recites the opening of the Quran and appeals to God to show him/her the straight path, the path of those who He favours and not the path of those who have angered Him and those who have gone astray. This is a clear strategic line of action to be followed. The daily and seasonal Islamic practices are helpful for personality adjustment and the promotion of mental health. Ramadan (the month of fasting) and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, in particular, provide ideal opportunities for breaking away from harmful social habits, for resolving psychological conflicts and for the attainment of mental peace. Indeed, there are examples of drug-dependent people giving up alcohol and drugs through the faithful adherence to religious commitments during Ramadan and through the abreactive cleansing of the inner self, devotional awakening and faithful enactments during the performance of the Pilgrimage rituals.

Observation of a healthy code of behaviour
The Quran as a guide and a source of enlightenment includes a number of historical events, examples of human endurance and supremacy, exemplary characters of prophets as well as reference to the dismal fate of those with deviant behaviour. In this respect, the aim is to encourage human beings to learn from past events, develop a refined quality of life and enjoy a healthy state of mind.

Islam, as with other religions, provides clear codes of conduct and behaviour. Abiding by such codes can help avoid certain health dangers, as for example sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS.

Exemplary model of alcohol prevention
The model, implemented in four stages at the dawn of Islam 14 centuries ago, for the control and prevention of alcoholism is still highly exemplary and unique. Under religiously motivated and well-oriented leadership, due consideration was given to the prevailing psychosocial conditions and a gradual systematic approach through persuasion, appeal to logic, religious conviction, demonstration by example and community mobilization to the degree of a holy war was effectively applied. Remarkably, the Islamic approach, based on religious directives, provides an excellent example and a superb model of success for dealing with the complex problem of alcoholism [16,17].

Management of specific mental health problems
A number of intricately complex mental health problems have been adequately dealt with by Islamic doctrine. However, the Quran is a religious code and not a medical text. As a practical demonstration, two specific mental health problems, suicide and the management of guilt feeling, will be discussed here.

In Islamic scripture, the problem of suicide is pronounced upon with clear, precise and firm directives. Indeed, the Quran emphatically states that you should not kill yourself because God has been merciful to you. This specific commandment plays a great role in the prevention of self-injury and self-killing among Muslim communities. I have personally seen the strength of this directive having treated a number of Muslim patients who had entertained suicidal ideas but have stopped short of taking their lives for fear of acting against the will of God.

As regards feelings of guilt within the Islamic context, relieving guilt feelings is an exercise in faith and a practical, step-by-step process of learning-by-doing. First, the person has to recognize his/her sin and wrong-doing. Second, he/she has to understand and face the mistakes. Third, he/she should strictly promise to give up and not repeat the wrongful behaviour, Fourth, he/she should invoke the help of God for forgiveness and guidance. Lastly, this act of repentance must be complemented by an act of faith and useful work (sura 6, verse 54).

Role of Islamic institutions
Islamic institutions play a most effective and useful role in the promotion of mental health and the prevention of psychosocially damaging behaviour. The impact of these institutions on health education, public information, community mobilization, promotion of mental well-being and the prevention of social evils, such as the misuse of drugs, are generally well known [18]. It is encouraging to note that the initial activities undertaken in some countries, particularly community participation and the involvement of religious personnel and institutions are promising and augur well for future planning and programming.

Conclusion
Islamic culture is rich with essential guiding principles, appropriate directives and models of excellence for the promotion of mental health and the realization of a meaningful quality of life.

References
1. World Health Assembly Resolution, WHA37/I37/l984/REC/1.6. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1984.
2. Lukoff D, Lu F, Turner R. Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychore-ligious and psychospiritual problems. Journal of nervous and mental disease, 1992, 180(11):673–81.
3. Jung CJ. Modern man in search of a soul. London, Routledge, 1961.
4. Rahim SI, Cederblad M. Effects of rapid urbanisation and child behaviour and health in a part of Khartoum, Sudan. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 1986, 25:629–41.
5. Baasher TA, Ibrahim HH. Childhood psychiatric disorders in the Sudan. African journal of psychiatry, 1976, 1:67–78.
6. Giel R, Van Luijk JN. Psychiatric morbidity in a small Ethiopian town. British journal of psychiatry, 1969, 115:149–63.
7. Goldberg DP, Blackwell B. Psychiatric illness in general practice. A new study using a new method of case identification. British medical journal, 1970, 1(707):439–43.
8. Leighton AH et al. Psychiatric disorders among the Yoruba. New York, Cornell University Press, 1963.
9. Orley J, Wing J. Psychiatric disorders in two African villages. Archives of general psychiatry, 1979, 36:513–20.
10. Carstairs M. Psychiatric problems in developing countries. British journal of psychiatry, 1973, 123:271–4.
11. Shephard M et al. Psychiatric illness in general practice. London, Oxford University Press, 1966.
12. Mckusick L, ed. What to do about AIDS. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1986.
13. Smith R. Alcohol: a new report, but still going backward. British medical journal, 1986, 293(6553):971–2.
14. Hardy J. A psychology with a soul. London, Routledge, 1987.
15. Wagdy ME. The Holy Book interpreted. Cairo, El-Shaal, 1970 (in Arabic).
16. Badri MB. Islam and alcoholism. Washington DC, American Trust Publication, 1976.
17. Bassher T. The use of drugs in the Islamic world. British journal of addiction, 1981, 76:233–43.
18. Baasher TA, Abu-Al-Azayem B. The role of the mosque. In: Edwards G, Arif A, eds. Drug problems in sociocultural context. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1980.

Source: Volume 7, No. 3, May 2001, 372-376
http://www.emro.who.int/publications/emhj/0703/7Islam.htm

Faith and Care of the Patient: An Islamic Perspective on Critical Illness

Author: F. A. Khan MD

Before discussing the Islamic perspectives with regard to the psychological issues that arise in those stricken with critical illness, it is important to lay some groundwork regarding Islam. This is necessary due to the widespread ignorance that exists concerning a basic understanding of just what defines Islam in terms of doctrine.

Most of what will proceed about this topic will ring familiar to those who are acquainted with their own faith traditions – and this is by, dare I say, Divine design. This is true since Islam, in terms of fundamental beliefs and paradigms, does not claim to be a new or even separate ‘religion.’ Indeed, today’s over zealous parochialization and rigid segmentation of things based on external appearance, including ‘religion,’ runs counter to the Islamic scriptural admonition to never allow ‘religion’ to be a divisive issue. Thus far, the term ’religion’ is surrounded by inverted commas, and that is because I wish to draw the readers’ attention to the definition of the term ‘religion.’ The term religion may safely be defined as that path that seeks a state of peace or submissiveness of the human self toward Divinity. This is exactly what Islam means in the Arabic language. One who practices this way is titled Muslim. Hence, we may conclude that the term Islam simply means religion.

The term Islam and its lexical derivatives are used throughout the Qur’an. “Qur’an” literally means recitation – and is the title of what Muslims consider a revelation from Divinity Itself in the Arabic language. This is a language spoken by the dwellers of the deserts of Arabia who were immeasurably attuned to the ways and realities of creation and the cosmos and developed an incredibly potent and rich language whose nuances and depth take years to master for even the greatest savants of language. It should be mentioned that Qur’anic Arabic is not at all the same as colloquial Arabic spoken today. The very sounds, cadences and words of the Qur’an are considered the literal word of God as revealed either directly, or through angelic medium, to a highly purified and saintly figure named Muhammad who lived in the 7th century in the Arabian Peninsula. One may often witness Muslim patients reciting litanies or passages of the Qur’an in an effort to unlock alleged healing powers that emanate from its authentic recitation. One may anecdotally hear of positive results of such practices, and I am aware that studies have been done in an attempt to demonstrate their therapeutic value.

The Qur’an also defines itself as a scripture; in it we find the doctrine that Islam began with the primordial couple – Adam and Eve. The term Muslim is also employed in reference to Noah and Abraham. Islam is considered that perennial way of peace and submission to the sacred, as practiced by numerous saints and prophets mentioned in the Qur’an such as those above, as well as Lot, Isaac, Ishmael, Jacob, Joseph, David, Solomon, Job, Jonah, Moses, Aaron, John, the Virgin Mary, and Jesus, and others. This way was crystallized during the mission of Muhammad, and those who follow his precedent have adopted the title Islam as a proper name signifying their respective faith tradition that encompasses ritual, law and spiritual development. The sentiments of Zarathustra of the Parsi tradition, Buddha, as well as that which underlies the Hindu doctrines - all echo the sentiment of Islam as defined above. Hence the Islamic tradition embraces that which is authentic in all faith traditions; as an extension, the Muslim who understands his or her religion will theoretically feel at home with any who believe in One God, accountability of one's actions before Divinity, and righteous conduct.

In fact, the Qur’an does not only address itself to those who follow the precepts of Muhammad, or Arabs, or the contemporaries of Muhammad; the call of the Qur’an is to any believer in God who wishes to deepen his or her relationship with the Creator. The Qur’an explicitly validates other faith traditions and recognizes that sincere practice in what is authentic in them provides legitimate vehicles to Divine Proximity. There is no such concept as monopolizing Divine Grace based on the outward labels or forms practiced by a particular group or tradition. At the same time, however, Muslims consider that tradition which was elucidated by Muhammad as the most authentic.

I’ve been asked to elaborate on Islam in the context of the spiritual issues facing the critically ill because of the “unavoidable religious dimension” inherent in such a scenario. The whole approach to the topic reveals a curious aspect of today’s contemporary academic climate. Post-modern secular humanistic thought – the paradigm that gives rise to and colors academic institutions - seeks to neatly and quite rigidly compartmentalize and even isolate various life issues. On some levels this is, I believe, appropriate. However in others it may be a hindrance. In our scenario, this pattern may prevent both patients and caregivers from dealing with exigencies of the critically ill in a wholesome and fulfilling manner – despite a poor medical prognosis.

In discussing compartmentalization, we should make mention of the current concept of the health care team – the attending and resident MD, RN, nurse’s aid, case manager, social worker, at times the pharmacist, chaplain…etc. The nature of institutionalized care demands a certain parceling off of roles to different members. I chuckle in recalling a time during administrative rounds when all members of the team met to formulate plans of care. The tone of the discussion for my patient with pneumonia was that anyone could write an order for antibiotics and treat pneumonia, but try to arrange for discharging the patient to a proper facility – that’s the challenging part! So to a certain extent, expertise needs to be divided, but who is responsible for the “religious dimension” that arises with the critically ill? In terms of recognizing its presence and the need to pursue it if indicated – perhaps everyone.

Is it possible to restore a model of the healing profession that encompasses spiritual and religious concerns – from a therapeutic perspective and beyond? The challenge these days lies in the plurality of the various traditions found in our culture. Naturally, adherents to a particular faith tradition will feel most comfortable with their co-religionists, in terms of having common outward forms of practice. This is quite legitimate and should always be respected. At the same time, from the perspective of training caregivers to at least be conscious of a religious dimension, there is enough concordance (despite outward differences) among the faith traditions to allow competence in recognizing the need to open avenues of discussion and contemplation that seem beneficial to patients, or to initiate an enquiry which may help deal with unresolved issues or difficult questions that arise with a patient.

There is a saying: “faith speaks to faith.” To this I’ve been witness. Just a few weeks ago, a chaplain from one particular tradition recounted to me how she dealt with a Muslim patient and I was certain her presence during the difficult moments that patient faced made a difference. There are scores of other examples I know of in which devout believers in a particular tradition are able to comfort adherents of a different faith tradition.

From the Islamic perspective, there is no essential demarcation between sacred and mundane, or secular and spiritual. All of life’s activities are infused with a spiritual dimension – echoing as it were, Divine remembrance – so as not to consider the material (including our earthly life) as an end unto itself. As testimony that this sentiment is characteristic of not only Islamic tradition, but almost every traditional civilization, one often encounters the fact that healers have usually been well versed in the spiritual dynamics of their respective faith traditions – many were even masters in these fields. A little known fact is that the Latin term psych means soul – which, unlike today’s implicit view, was never considered fettered by a solely rational, inductive, deductive, or purely mental faculty – and certainly neuro-chemical manipulation would likely have been seen as a vulgar (but at times necessary) form of behavioral modification and transformation. The fields of psychiatry and psychology have done a great disservice to postmodern humankind by tacitly closing themselves to the realm of metaphysics and refusing to submit to thousands of years of accumulated wisdom from faith traditions, which in addressing the inner peace attainable by humans, have too much in common to disregard.

Certain themes arise in the context of serious illness that relate to the realm of religion and are specifically addressed in the Muslim world-view. I will elaborate on some: confrontation with mortality, coping with affliction, and the desire for companionship.

Facing the prospect of one’s own death and the subject of human mortality is a tricky subject. This is true now, more than ever, as today’s pop culture exhibits a tremendous condemnation, aversion, and distaste for mortality, which to a certain degree is at odds with most religious doctrines. Most faith traditions, including Islam, implicitly, explicitly, and categorically highlight the transience of our earthly sojourn; they promote the fact that a greater reality awaits. This theme is recurrently addressed in the Qur’an. Many of the Prophet Muhammad’s sayings (narratives and traditions known as Hadith – which are not considered direct revelation and hence are not part of the Qur’an) advise against deluding oneself into acting and feeling as if this life is one of permanence. One of these sayings, echoed in various forms by saints and writers, dictates that we are indeed partially asleep or even dead here on earth and through our mortality we shall experience a “lifting of the veils” and experience reality in a far more qualitative and quantitative way. Another saying emphasizes the need to uphold the attitude of a traveler who must traverse this life with care, always keeping the destination in view. These luminaries lived as such and they continually emphasized otherworldliness in their beings. An extension of that was to warn against succumbing to a pathologic attachment to the earthly phase of our existence. This attachment has many unfortunate manifestations – which would take us to another topic.
Indeed, the very indices of real success and failure have little to do with what would be termed worldly and material indices as such, since material existence and progress are not ends unto themselves. Earthly life is to be enjoyed, but is important only so far as it impacts our spiritual development – either allowing it to soar to great heights or degrade into misery despite an appearance of earthly success. Hence, factors such as wealth, talent, fame, status, reputation, fortune, ego, pain, affliction, loss, hardship, and misfortune can be seen as stimuli for spiritual evolution or devolution. The imagery of trials is often found in the Islamic tradition and ironically, the saintly scholars are unanimous in stating that trial through misfortune is far easier to handle than trial through fortune – in terms of exhibiting the proper spiritual etiquette and growth before the Almighty.

In mentioning the term spiritual development, we must examine the nature of human substance. The Qur’an alludes to the human being in several respects. There are references to our organic and embryologic composition, our physiologic and sensate faculties, our ability to speak, reason, and contend and feel emotions. However, Islamic tradition goes further and adds to this, as the Qur’an clearly dictates that the quintessential defining characteristic of the human envelope is the soul (in Arabic: nafs). This is a conscious, willful, transcendental component of being and the purpose of religion from an essential perspective is simply to guard, maintain and purify it. It must be emphasized here that there is no inherent conflict within Islamic doctrine between the physical, rational, emotional or spiritual components of the human being. Hence, there is no doctrine of harsh asceticism, turning away, or shunning worldly aspects of one's identity, although there is recognition that the human condition is one of forgetfulness and distraction through worldly pursuits. It is also abundantly clear that most of the great spiritual masters in the Islamic tradition, including the Prophet Muhammad himself, chose a most austere, simple lifestyle – wholeheartedly content with a minimalist approach to material pursuits; moreover, during formal spiritual training under the guidance of sages and saints, there are times where restraint from worldly activities is called upon in an effort to re-harmonize the “components” of one’s being.

For the Muslim, and indeed any believer in most faith traditions, there is a sense of peace with regard to mortality. This thrust is often sensationalized, misused and misunderstood as a desire to seek death. Because of the maligning of Islam through contemporary geopolitical events and the tidal wave of woefully poor and infantile attempts at scholarship and journalism, I feel the need to explicitly state that on a concrete and doctrinal level, a Muslim does not seek death – but when it ultimately visits (as it always does), there is a sense of conciliation, rather than a horrid and even vulgar enmity. The Qur’an mentions those who look forward to meeting with their Lord. A famous traditional narrative recounts the death of a child from an undefined illness. The saintly mother informed her husband by asking what he thought of the fact that something precious they had been entrusted with was returned to its Owner. The implication here is clear. For the Muslim, life and its contingencies (such as volition and will) are a trust (Arabic: amanat) that is ultimately returned. Indeed, one of the attributes of Divinity is “al-Hayy,” a Qur’anic term whose lexical field includes notions of “The Completely Alive” or “The Truly Existent” or “That which is Real Being” or “That which Fully Is.” Our sense of being is but an infinitesimally pale reflection that subsists upon “al-Hayy.” Language buckles here, so I need to say that these words do not imply pantheism in any way, shape or form. Instead, it is an attempt to describe an utter state of dependence.
An aversion to, and discomfort with death may have multiple etiologies. From an Islamic standpoint some are valid. When the subject is a loved one, we encounter mourning a loss, closing a chapter of existence, and missing an earthly presence. All are very real and charged emotional states that are respected. With regard to self, this sadness at the approach of one’s earthly conclusion and want of more time to cherish that which is here and now, or fulfill responsibilities – these sentiments are embraced. But when the aversion and discomfort toward self-mortality and the general topic of death stems from an over attachment to material life and a delusion that worldly and material life is the end all and be all – this is criticized by Islamic doctrine. On a deeper level, the Qur’an mentions a certain type of aversion to death as analogous to the reflexive manifestation of a soul that fears a meeting with its Lord due to an intuitive understanding and witnessing of the negative qualities which have accrued on it via the willful damage it has consciously inflicted on itself. 

In Islamic doctrine, to sin is to wrong one’s own soul – by extension, to harm others is also to harm one's self. In a way, it remembers just how sorely it has forgotten itself and neglected its mandate. To be on the lookout for a patient who wishes to open his or her door to remembrance is perhaps most critical – it is everyone’s job; hence the gatherings for these conferences at St Vincent’s and elsewhere. The Muslim is taught that in the Divine Exactitude, there is no sin too small, but through the Divine Mercy there is no sin too great. The Divine Mercy does exceed the Divine Wrath; in this the hope of the Muslims lay.
So mortality is not necessarily an enemy. As a physician, I am very careful not to confuse mortality with morbidity, which is indeed the enemy. Morbidity and suffering are things to stamp out and alleviate and indeed can be thought of as separate from mortality. Many fear mortality because they confuse it with morbidity and suffering. Conceptually, they are indeed separate, and uncoupling the two for discussion is mandatory in our context. There are many who experientially and quite firmly realize this crucial difference between mortality and morbidity – those in health care, those who are critically ill, those whose loved ones suffer through critical illness – these all understand that mortality can be an end to suffering. This again is a loaded topic, but the dichotomy between the two needs to be stated.

The next issue to address in dealing with this topic is the idea of coping – specifically, coping with critical illness. It is safe to consider critical illness under the rubric of trial and affliction in terms of formulating an understanding of a reaction to such states from an Islamic perspective. The first crucial premise to realize in dealing with and reacting to conditions in terms of behavior, formulating sentiments, or action is that for the Muslim, the primary audience is Divinity. From a certain angle, the Qur’an is simply a recurrent medley encouraging an experiential realization of this notion. The Muslim is encouraged to always be in some form of dhikr - a “remembrance” of the vertical dimension to reality, even more - a remembrance of Divinity. As stated earlier, there is no essential division between the secular or sacred. Hence the litanies, inspirational utterances and religious sayings for everyday things such as eating, using the bathroom, entering a home, beginning a task, making love to one’s spouse (well maybe not so everyday), embarking on a journey…. etc. One of the reasons for this is to surround oneself with dhikr. Directly extending from this is taking care to maintain oneself in a state of proper adâb, a term that includes meanings such as etiquette, posture, courtesy, approach, standing - all before the Primary Audience.
To summarize the Islamic perspective on coping, one can say that the Muslim is encouraged to struggle to alleviate affliction and hardship based on a sincere understanding of a given situation. The caveat is to maintain a sense of peace in ones’ inner self, no matter what the outcome of the endeavor – success or failure. The very act of intention and effort, or in our case, the desire to regain health and cope with affliction, pain and therapeutics – these very things are indeed an end unto themselves, the results may go either way. This notion, among other things, is an acknowledgment of the Divine Will – which the Muslim knows is never capricious. Now, what is it to maintain a “state of peace in ones’ inner self, no matter what the result?” Well, in the context of a successful outcome, it is to don an attitude or display the adâb of shukr, which essentially means gratitude. In the context of perceived failure of a struggle, it is to don an attitude or display the adâb of sabr, a highly charged term that includes meanings such as patience, perseverance, fortitude, and keeping ones chin up, and there is a hint of resignation in the term as well. There is a narrative tradition which states that the believers’ heart, on whatever level, is perpetually in the adâb of either shukr or sabr, and another narrative which states that a lifetime can be viewed as a couple of days -one a good day (to express shukr) and the other a bad day (for sabr).

We need to explore the term sabr (patience, perseverance, fortitude) a bit further, since the struggle with critical illness obviously calls for it. It is indeed the hallmark for a Muslim when confronted with hardship. Implicit in the context of adverse conditions is a struggle to ameliorate ones circumstances; hence, it should not be confused with passivity or fatalism. The term sabr is used over one hundred times in the Qur’an. Recall that for a Muslim, the Qur’an is the literal word of God, and as a common saying goes, “God does not waste words.” There are verses that proclaim that “God is with those in sabr,” and “God loves those who practice sabr.” Practicing sabr is seen as a most potent vehicle to Divine Proximity, for spiritual development and purification. There is an expression found in the Middle East: “May your hardship (or loss/trial/affliction) be for you a source of nearness to God.” From a converse angle, Divine Proximity is what the Muslim seeks; sabr delivers such and necessitates the presence of hardship and affliction for actualization. Again, this should not be taken to mean that a Muslim seeks hardship or affliction, but when the circumstances come around, there ensues a quest for sabr.

The Qur’anic verses promising struggles throughout one's life are seen from this regard, rather than a design by some whimsical and sadistic deity. Again, we approach the impenetrable questions as to the ultimate whys. The Muslim understands that to approach the plan of God with the faculties of mental gymnastics is to take in a landscape while blind, or to solve a multi-linear Boolean equation with simple arithmetic. However, there is a far more powerful faculty of realization and understanding for the Muslim, which when awoken renders the protests of the mental and rational faculties into the annoying and irrelevant whining of a spoiled brat. The Qur’an refers to this as knowledge or witnessing of the heart, and it is in this arena that we are told the “why” is put to rest. This awakening comes only through Divine Proximity, and practicing sabr is a potential route. So for the sincere believer, it is possible to come to terms with hardship and struggle, not so much through empirical deduction, reason, or discursive cognition, but through spiritual realization, at least this is what we are taught by the prophets and saints. For the secularist cynic, this is nothing but a self-serving fantasy and delusion.

Of course the ultimate inspiration for the practice of sabr are the prophets and saints. Historically speaking, they suffered like no others. We take the example of Muhammad. He was maligned and slandered. He was assaulted many times, and beaten. He was the target of multiple assassination attempts, had a bounty hunter quick on his heels and was poisoned. He had his tooth knocked out, had entrails and feces flung on him, and was literally stoned and run out of town. Historical accounts relate that when he fell ill, his suffering would account for the suffering of two. When he spiked a fever, it would be double that of others. There is more, but the picture is fairly vivid. For Muslims, the prophets (including Moses, Mary and Jesus) and the saints are pillars of sabr and are forever an inspiration to those undergoing hardship, and the Muslim remains steadfast in the belief in a Qur'anic doctrine which states that the soul of a servant is never stressed beyond its capacity.

From the Islamic perspective, suffering from illness itself also contains within it a purifying and redemptive nature. There are traditions that allude to the pangs of illness being able to shed sins and spiritual pollutants as leaves are shed from a tree. This expiationary grace is operative with even minimal discomfort, such as the injury that comes from the prick of a thorn. It is also functional with those suffering from chronic afflictions, epilepsy and blindness are mentioned, among others. The underlying premise to this pattern of thought is that it is far better to atone, purify, and rid oneself of spiritual pollutants here in this world, as opposed to dragging them to the hereafter.

One absolutely crucial point to understand is that purification, spiritual development, atonement and expiation which come in these scenarios and with sabr is strictly conditional upon the subject allowing Divinity into his or her consciousness. From the Islamic perspective, God does not impose upon the human consciousness; it is for the human will to accept or reject, and hence a respectful acceptance or rejection of the Divine Grace follows. The following tradition illustrates this superbly: The Prophet Muhammad visited an elderly Bedouin who had fallen ill and offered him words of comfort and prayed that his hardship serve as a source of blessings. The Bedouin didn’t see it that way and scolded that his illness is nothing else than an entity whose pain crushes his very bones and whose fever boils his blood and hastens him toward a miserable death. Muhammad gently replied, “Then it is so.”

From the Qur’anic standpoint, will and consciousness are not playthings in the least – the Qur’an makes mention of the fact that the heavens and the earth cowered from the proposition of being granted will and consciousness. Hence, from a certain perspective, one's consciousness carves out one's reality. Interestingly, the brilliant physicist and mathematician Von Neumann employed the phrase 'consciousness created reality,' in acknowledgement of the way quantum theory and the new physics has overturned any attempt at explaining reality from an objective or truly empirical point of view. Yet how stubbornly and dogmatically many cling to their ideas of “the way things work” when it comes to ultimate realities and life’s deepest issues.

Another element to keep in mind before we leave the subject of coping with illness is best summed up by the colloquialism, which states that sometimes things are “a blessing in disguise.” This hardly needs any exposition, as almost all have been witness to this in their own lives, a time when hardship and difficult circumstances turned out, in hindsight, to be not such a malicious occurrence after all. The Qur’an narrates how this very important facet of life was impressed upon Moses in his travels with a mystical and saintly figure named Khidr. Moses witnesses devastating tragedies and paradoxical situations that are engineered by Khidr. With the evolution of time and practicing sabr, Moses discovers the wisdom inherent in such circumstances. Hence, Moses is convinced that indeed, even the most dire situations may be blessings in disguise.

Since sabr does not imply passive resignation, it does not preclude an intention and effort to ameliorate one’s condition. Hence, it is little wonder that therapeutics are embraced. The civilizations that in the Middle Ages were spawned by Muhammad’s influence (which in turn engendered many facets of this one) were noted for their advances in the sciences and health care. Surgery, medicine, and pharmacology were established fields and industries. An Islamic tradition states, “For every ailment, there is a remedy – except old age.” Hence, strides in the fields of research and teaching were welcome. In the 12th century, cities like Baghdad, Cordoba, Damascus, and Fez had scores of hospitals dedicated to teaching, research, with wings for social work and medical students! More importantly, the lifestyle exemplified by the Muhammadan precedent (which was and is most often neglected by Muslims) pointed to simplicity and moderation, emphasizing care in the diet (very pertinent these days considering the toxins that exist in industry foods) and meticulous hygiene, including oral hygiene. Muhammad was quite explicit in warning of the dangers of filling the stomach, as he stated that at fullest, the stomach should be a third food, a third water, and a third empty. So from the Islamic perspective, preventative medical policies and evolving new therapies to combat illness are fully consistent with tradition.

The last element to discuss in the context of critical illness is the desire for companionship. A sense of isolation is commonly felt by the afflicted, and visiting the stricken is a staple of Islamic social mores, and is indeed common to most traditions. One narrative relates that Muhammad had a neighbor that used to purposefully empty trash on Muhammad’s doorstep and walkway. Once when Muhammad noted that he did not have to wade his way through garbage, he was seen soon after at the neighbors’ door enquiring about their health and asking if he may be of service - such is the premium of helping those who are ill.

At one level, visitation provides comfort through sincere well wishing, sympathy, empathy, sharing, love, and service. Most often, family is best able to actualize this and this truly is one of the blessings of familial love – so selfless and pure. Those who have experienced what happens to the elderly and chronically ill when removed from family in extended care facilities, realize the importance of familial love and support and know there is simply no substitute for familial care. But visitation and companionship has a different level of meaning, more geared for health care professionals and those in the ministerial fields. This has to do with what in the Islamic context is called “sohba” – a term denoting companionship and presence. When referring to presence, I speak not of the word in its’ secularized context, i.e. being in the same place in space and time with someone. Rather, presence as it is used in the phrase, “such and such has got a real presence about them.” This attribute can indeed transcend space and time; for instance, it is the Muslim who does his or her best to achieve presence with Muhammad and of course tries to feel the presence of Divinity. So it should be the goal of those who seek to minister and provide companionship for the critically ill to develop an authentic presence, in order to make fruitful their sohba with the patients. Authentic presence in the scenario of visiting the sick translates to an uplifting comfort, inspiration, love, encouragement, strength, exhortation to fortitude, and even healing. Those who interacted with the prophets and saints reported feeling this very often – these luminaries exuded such qualities and it was part of their charisma.

According to the spiritual masters, emptying one's self of ego and becoming a receptacle that reflects certain hallmarks of Divinity actualizes this presence. These hallmarks include peace, compassion, love, strength, constancy, support, patience, and others. In other words, the task of those who minister is to become a locus of Divine manifestation. I must emphasize here that this cannot be learned through textual studies and a secular curriculum. To some extent it is a reality inherent in the human condition and many can shine simply by being real and true to themselves and those around them. But due to the pollutants of many forces hostile and cynical to fulfilling one's true human being, there is much work that needs to be done to allow the authentic presence to shine through – so we are told by the prophets and saints in the Islamic tradition.

From the converse angle, we note that in the Islamic tradition, serving and visiting the sick is a vehicle for Divine Proximity for the visitor. There are numerous narratives that explain this. In one account, during Judgment, God will ask some folks why when He was hungry they did not offer food, or when He was thirsty, why they did not provide drink, or when He was ill why they did not visit. The response of course will be one of confusion as those spoken to will respond, “Glory be to You, Lord of Reality – You are above such needs and suffering!?!” The reply will be “Yes, but you were aware that my servant here was hungry, and my servant there was thirsty, and my servant over there was ill, and through serving them you would have found ME.” Another narrative advises to look for Divinity amongst the meek, poor, disenfranchised, and sick. We can conclude that for those who visit with and minister to the ill with as much sincerity and presence as they can muster, there is a reciprocal dynamic and exchange of Divine grace and mercy through which both parties are hopefully transformed. It is never a one-way street with caregivers, be they an MD, RN, nurse’s aid, chaplain, or social worker. No matter how much they stumble, they tread the path of saints and prophets. However, if not possessed by proper attitudes, the situation may become downright disastrous, openly or otherwise. Despite appearances, it is an enormous task – hence the anguish, frustration, and burnout that exists side by side with epiphanies of joy and accomplishment.

The above discussion was an elaboration of Islamic doctrine as it relates to the subject of care giving to the critically ill. As mentioned earlier, these ideas resonate with other faith traditions. Understanding these values and sympathizing with patients who are attempting to actualize them can lead to a more fulfilling and meaningful encounter for both caregiver and patient.

Published on crescentlife.com with permission from the author.
Contact Info: drfanaaz@aol.com 
Published in 'The Yale Journal for Humanities in Medicine'. June 14, 2002
http://info.med.yale.edu
Published in: The American Muslim' online e-zine  Jan-Feb 2003 issue
www.theamericanmuslim.org
 

Ghazali's Tazkiyat Al-Nafs & Its Relation with Individual’s Development & Mental Health

Author: Dr. Mukhtar Solihin, M.A.

Preface
The purification of soul is the most important theme in tasawuf,[i] because it is important method to bring near to God. Therefore, Sufis always talk about it. Sufism is not really some kind of esoteric secret thing. Sufism is simply the sciences and methodologies for the purification of the soul which have arisen within the context of Islam. In the the Qur’an’s language, this theme is known as “Tazkiyat al-Nafs.”

Term of tazkîyat in the Arabic language means purification of something (from adulterants), its growth and development and to bring it to the height of its perfection. Thereafter in Sufism, term of tazkiyat includes al-nafs, it means purification of soul from bad characteristics (al-Akhlâq al-Majmûmah).  

The concept of tazkiyat al-nafs was being explain by some Sufis, especially al-Ghazali. In his conception, tazkiyat al-nafs has been being explained by the Qur’an: “By the Soul, and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment as to its wrong and its right; truly he succeeds that purifies it, and he fails that corrupts it!” (Al-Shams 91:7-10).

In this paper I shall speak about tazkiyat al-nafs (the purification of soul) according to al-Ghazali. This theme is chosen by writer, because it is needed until this modern era. Tazkiyat al-nafs is also part of the spiritual health. It means purification of the self from all evil inclinations and its beautification with good values and virtues. This was actually the mission of the Prophet Muhammad -peace and blessings of Allah be upon him. Allah chose him and appointed him as our Teacher and Master for this purpose.  Even now Tazkiyat al-nafs is relevance with individual development and mental health in this modern era.

Al-Ghazali’s Tazkiyat al-nafs
Al-Ghazali’s full name is Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi.  He was the greatest Islamic thinkers who was called as "the Hujjat al-lslam" (the Proof of Islam), “the agent of moral”, and “the greatest sufi figure”.  He was born in 450 A.H. (1058 A.D.) in Tus, Khurasan near Meshhad in present-day Iran, and died at Tabran in Jamadil Ukhra 505 A.H. at the age of 55 years.[ii] His father was a wool spinner (ghazzal) and thus, relative to this profession, al-Ghazali acquired this name.[iii]

He learned various branches of traditional Islamic religious sciences in his home town. He was also involved in Sufi practices from an early age. Being recognized by Nizam al-Mulk, the vizir of the Seljuqsultans, he was appointed head of the Nizamiyyah College at Baghdad in AH 484/1091 CE. Four years later, however, al-Ghazali fell into a serious spiritual crisis and finally left Baghdad, renouncing his career and the world. After wandering in Syria and Palestinefor about two years and finishing the pilgrimage to Mecca, he returned to Tus, where he was engaged in writing, Sufi practices and teaching his disciples until his death.

In Islamic thinking world, al-Ghazali figure is researched by scholars. They research al-Ghazali’s thoughts from some aspect, especially interested in sufism. In his sufism, he spoke about tazkiyat al-nafs (purification of soul).

Al-Ghazali’stazkiyat al-nafs has relevance with individual growth and development. He expounds in very clear terms a distinct concept of individual growth and development. A human being is both, body and soul, matter and spirit. It is the unique balance between the two contrasts that makes humans what they are, the highest creation. The original condition of the human being is that of fitrah which is uprightness. According to al-Ghazali, a human being is born in a natural state of purity (fitrah al Islam). The potential to do good or bad exists. It is the early environment that determines how those potentials are enhanced. If the environment is good, the good potentials are promoted. If it is bad the bad ones are.

The nafscan be purified by acts of ibadat, avoiding the forbidden, generally being conscious of the Creator [with tafakkur], constant meditation about the creation [with dzikr], and apply good morals (akhlâq mahmûdah) in life. According to al-Ghazali, these are called purification of soul (tazkiyat al-nafs). Until nowadays, we necessary to do purification of soul. Therefore, in this paper, I shall explain about the purification of soul (tazkiyat al-nafs) according to al-Ghazali.

Al-Ghazali’s tazkiyat al-nafs was normally closely to morality. Morality according to al-Ghazali was conscientious action in accordance with the moral law (akhlâq). But conscientious action is not possible without the possession of purity of motive by the moral agent, which in its turn necessitates a continuous psychological effort, named in tasawuf terminology as tazkiyat. According to al-Ghazali, that Allah saw in the Holy Qur’an:

“By the Soul, and the proportion and order given to it;  And its enlightenment as to its wrong and its right; Truly he succeeds that purifies it, And he fails that corrupts it” (al-Qur’ân, 91: 7-10).

Literally, the word tazkîyahmeans the removal of undesirable growths and impurities. As a spiritual-moral term, it denotes the self-imposed effort of moral agent for eradicating those tendencies within the human self, which form obstacles in the path of moral development.[iv]  Thus, it can be understood that the eradication consisting in resolving the conflict between good and evil that rages in human soul.

The Holy Qur’an affirm the existence of two aspect of human nature, i.e. al-nafs al-Amârah  (the Impelling of Carnal Self) and al-nafs al-Lawwâmah(the reproaching of Moral self) and the conflict that occurs between them. Therefore, it affirms that the situation of conflict has to be resolved through discarding the behests of the al-nafs al-Amârah at the instance of al-nafs al-Lawwâmah, thereby enabling the self to transform into al-nafs al-muthma’innah. Its through undertaking this kind of process that an individual can achieve the tazkiyat al-nafsas what has been said in the Holy Qur’an:

“Allah did confer a great favour on the Believers when He sent among them a Messenger from among themselves, rehearsing unto them the Signs of Allah, sanctifying them, and instructing them in Scripture and Wisdom, while before that, they had been in manifest error” (al-Qur’ân, 3: 164). 

According to al-Ghazali and generally Sufis, that tazkiyat al-nafs need help from Allah. In the Qur’an is explained, that Allah purifies whom He wants (4:49). All human effort at Tazkiyat should always be accompanied by supplication for Allah's intervention without which human effort will bear no fruit. On the other hand, it is wrong for a human to make no effort and passively expect Allah to intervene. Humans must play their role before expecting Allah's help.

Furthermore, the Sufis method of tazkiyat al-nafs is more reliable on the discussion on concept of nafs, rûh, qalb and ‘aql together with the philosophical and metaphysical doctrines such as longing, gnosis, annihilation, eternity, passionate love and so on which they developed during their mystical journey.

Al-Ghazali’s tazkiyat al-nafs was begun from his doubt to knowledge. In his autobiography, al-Munqidh min al-Dalâl (The Deliverer from Error), written late in his life. It was his habit from an early age, he says, to search for the true reality of things. In the process he came to doubt the senses and even reason itself as the means to ‘certain knowledge’, and fell into a deep skepticism. However, he was eventually delivered from this with the aid of the divine light, and thus recovered his trust in reason. Using reason, he then set out to examine the teachings of ‘the seekers after truth’: the theologians, philosophers, Batinites and concluded 'There remained, then, only what was attainable, not by hearing and studying, but by fruitional experience and actually engaging in the way'.  As a result of these studies, he came to the realization that there was no way to certain knowledge except through sufism. In order to reach this ultimate truth of the Sufis, however, it is first necessary to renounce the world and to devote oneself to mystical practice. Al-Ghazali came to this realization through an agonising process.

Al-Ghazali explained in his autobiography why he renounced his brilliant career and turned to Sufism. It was, he says, due to his realization that there was no way to certain knowledge or the conviction of revelatory truth except through Sufism. (This means either that the traditional form of Islamic faith was in a very critical condition at the time, or he simply did not agree with the standard day to day grind of "ordinary" Islam.) This realization is possibly related to his criticism of Islamic philosophy. In fact, his refutation of philosophy is not a mere criticism from a certain (orthodox) theological viewpoint. First of all, his attitude towards philosophy was ambivalent; it was both an object of criticism and an object of learning (for example, logic and the natural sciences). He mastered philosophy and then criticized it in order to Islamicize it. The importance of his criticism lies in his philosophical demonstration that the philosophers’ metaphysical arguments cannot stand the test of reason. However, he was also forced to admit that the certainty of revelatory truth, for which he was so desperately searching, cannot be obtained by reason. It was only later that he finally attained to that truth in fana’ which in Sufism refers to the state of losing one's self and ego. Through his own religious experience, he worked to revive the faith of Islam by reconstructing the religious sciences upon the basis of Sufism, and to give a theoretical foundation to the latter under the influence of philosophy. Thus Sufism came to be generally recognized in the Islamic community. Though Islamic philosophy did not long survive al-Ghazali's criticism, he contributed greatly to the subsequent philosophization of Islamic theology and Sufism.  Finally, al-Ghazali convince that Sufi is better way, because Sufi always purifies his soul (tazkiyat al-nafs) and appears good morals.[v]

Al-Ghazali began his theory with the purification of the human nature (nafs). According to al-Ghazali the essence of a person is the nafs and not the physical body. Thus personality and behavior are referred to as the nafs.

Meaning of nafs: It has two meanings. First, it means the powers of anger and lust in a human being... and this is the usage mostly found among the [so-called] people of tasawwuf, who take “nafs" as the comprehensive word for all the evil attributes of a person. That is why they say: one must certainly do battle with the soul/self and break it (la budda min mujahadat al-nafs wa kasriha), as is referred to in the hadîth: A`da `aduwwuka nafsuka al-lati bayna janibayk (Your worst enemy is your nafs which lies between your flanks) Al-‘Irâqî says it is in Bayhaqî on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbâs and its chain of transmission contains Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ghazwan, one of the forgers.

The second meaning of nafs is the spirit, the human being in reality, his self and his person. However, it is described differently according to its different states. If it assumes calmness under command and has removed from itself the disturbance caused by the onslaught of passion, it is called “the satisfied soul” (al-nafs al-mutma'inna)... In its first meaning the nafs does not envisage its return to God because it has kept itself far from Him: such a nafsis from the party of shaytân. However, when it does not achieve calmness, yet sets itself against the love of passions and objects to it, it is called “the self-accusing soul” (al-nafs al-lawwama), because it rebukes its owner for his neglect in the worship of his master... If it gives up all protest and surrenders itself in total obedience to the call of passions and shaytân, it is named “the soul that enjoins evil” (al-nafs al-ammara bi al-su’)... which could be taken to refer to the soul/self in its first meaning.[vi]

In that regard, al-Ghazali fellows other Sufi figure such as Abu Thalib al-Makki[vii] by mentioning that the “nafs” is a lustful force connected to the whole body jointly and is the place of origin of the blameworthy characteristics. It purification is clearance of all blameworthy characteristics and it’s taking on the attributes of the praiseworthy characteristics.[viii] 

From the description of the nafs, it appears that al-Ghazali accepts the theory of the faculties of the nafs, which are two in number. He refers to its first faculty as lower desire (hawâ)[ix] and the second faculty as anger (ghadab).He remarks that the purification of these faculties is necessary and it can only be achieved by their equilibrium as he says: “Know that nafs has two intrinsic qualities, which are lower desire (hawâ) and anger (ghadab), and all the blameworthy characteristics are begotten from them. Its purification can be achieved by their equilibrium”.[x]

According to al-Ghazali, that hawâ and ghadab often is influenced by Satan’s whispering.  Satan is an enemy of humans. A human who wants to stay pure must be vigilant against Satan's influence. Satan has limited influence over human action. He causes waswasah (Satanic whispers). He leads astray. Satan is never away from humans. Every human has a Satan around him or her.The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, in a very revealing metaphor said that Satan circulates in the human body as does the blood. Satan will always try to confuse humans. He, for example, will attempt to prevent the human from waking up in the morning to pray. The human is however not helpless against Satan. There are many simple actions that will chase Satan away and all of these are part of the process of tazkiyat al-nafs.

To describe this theory of purification of the nafs, al-Ghazali divides the nafsinto two: moderate and excessive.[xi] He explain that when lower desire is excessive, it will produce the quality of lust (shahwah), covetosness (hirs), expectation (‘amal), vileness (khissah), baseness (qanâ’ah), avarice (bukhl), cowardice (jubn), back-biting (ghîbah) and calumny (buhtan).[xii]. Otherwise when the faculty of lower desire is successfully moderate, many praiseworthy  characteristics will appear in the nafs such as modesty (jûd), generosity (sakhawah), love (mahabbah), compassion (shafaqah), respect (ta’zhîm) and patience (sabr).

Furthermore, al-Ghazali explains that when the faculty of anger is excessive, it will produce arrogance (takabbur), antagonism (adâwah), rage (hiddah), vanity (‘ujub), pride (fakhr), conceit (khuyala) and lying (khadhb). He also elaborates that if the faculty of anger able to act, it will produce rancor (hiqd) and if it is unable to do so, it will produce the quality of weakness (‘ajz) and idleness (kasl).[xiii] Therefore he says that when the faculty of anger is moderate, the praiseworthy characteristics will appear in the nafs such as humbleness (tawaddu’), gentleness (hilm), sense of honor (muruwwah), contenment (qanâ’ah), courage (shajâ’ah), generosity (badl) and affection (ithar).[xiv]

For this phase, al-Ghazali emphasizes man to purity his nafs until he achieves this kind of moderation of these faculties, which he names it as equilibrium (i’itidâl).

Al-Ghazali then says that after the purification of the nafs is achieved, man should busy himself with cleansing the heart (qalb),which he describes as being able to ruin the whole body when it, i.e. the heart is ruined. Al-Ghazali cites the popular Tradition from the Prophet:

Truly, in body is a chunk of meat, when it is good, the whole body will be good by it, and when it is ruined, the whole body will be ruined by it, indeed it is the heart, a chunk of meat suspended beneath the chest to the left side.[xv]

He says: “Know that the qalb can have rightness and wrongness; it is rightness is in its purity and its wrongness is in its turbidity. Its purity is in the soundness of its senses and its turbidity is in the deficiency of its senses. When the senses are sound, the heart will be sound”.[xvi].

Like other sufi masters, al-Ghazali regards the qalb as being like a mirror, which grows rusty like iron. He quotes the tradition from Apostle of Allah.

Qalbbecome rusty as iron becomes rusty. It was said: “With what can it be polished, O Apostle of Allah? He said: “The remembrance of Allah Most High and the recitation of the Qur’an.[xvii]

Such a qalb, he suggest may be polished by struggling against desires, acquiring good characteristics, seclusion, solitude and continually remembering (zikr) Allah. Through polishing the qalb, al-Ghazali says that the qalb will manifest “vision of lights (mushâhadat al-anwâr), unveilings (mukâshafat) of the unseen and manifestation of divinity (tajalliyat al-rubûbiyyah), commensurate with the stations (maqâmat) and the states (ahwâl).[xviii]

Al-Ghazali also mentions that the qalb have five senses like the senses of the body, which should be purified in order to achieve the sound qalb.He explains such senses as follows: ”It has hearing to hear the speech of the people of the unseen world; it has eyesight to see glimpses of the unseen world; it has a sense of smell to smell the scent of the unseen world; it has taste to find  thereby by sweetness of love; it has touch to understand rational concept. When its senses are sound, its soundness will be obtained, and when soundness is obtained, the soundness of the qalb will be obtained. When its senses are unsound, the qalb will be unsound and the rest of the body will be unsound because of it.”[xix]    

In this contact, al-Ghazali quotes two Qur’anic verses as an evident for his theory as follows:[xx]

“Many are the Jinns and men We have made for Hell: they have hearts wherewith they understand not, eyes wherewith they see not, and ears wherewith they hear not. They are like cattle, nay more misguided: for they are heedless (of warning)”(al-Qur’ân, 7: 179).           

"Truly it is not their eyes that are blind, but their hearts which are in their breasts” (al-Qur’ân, 22: 46).

Al-Ghazali  also states that, “the qalb has seven phases just as the body has seven organs”, i.e. then “chest” (sadr), the “outer heart” (qalb), the “pericardium” (shaghaf), the “inner heart” (fu’âd), the “grain of the heart” (habbat al-qalb), the “inmost heart” (suwaydâ al-qalb) and the “core of the heart” (muhjat al-qalb). He uses the term “ma’dan” (source) and “mahhall” (center) to show the activities of each phase and the supports each activity with evidence from Qur’anic verses.[xxi]

Al-Ghazali elaborates that sadr is the source of Islam as Allah Most High said: “Is one whose heart Allah has opened to Islam, so that he has received enlightenment from Allah” (al-Qur’ân, 39: 22). And he says that if the sadris not attributed with thw characteristic of Islam, it is the source of unbelief and a center devilish insinuations and the seduction of the soul, as Allah Most High said: “Such as open their breast to unbelief, on them is wrath from Allah” (al-Qur’ân, 16:106). And He said: “[The same] who whispers into the chests of mankind among jinns” (al-Qur’ân, 114: 5).

Whereas the second phase which is regarded as the “outer heart” (qalb),is considered by al-Ghazali as the source of faithas Allah Most High said: “For such He has written faith in their hearts (qulûb)” (al-Qur’ân, 58:22).  Beside that, he also considers it as the center of the light of the intellect and the center of vision (ru’yah),as Allah Most High said: “So that their hearts [and minds] may thus learn wisdom. Truly it is not their eyes that are blind, but their hearts” (al-Qur’ân, 22: 46).

The third phase which is called “pericardium” (shaghaf)is considered by al-Ghazali as the source of love, ardent love and compassion towards creation, as he quotes Allah Most High said: “Truly hath he inspired her with violent love” (al-Qur’ân, 12:30).  While the fourth phase which is called by al-Ghazali as the “inner heart (fu’âd) is regarded as the source of seeing (mushâhadah) and the center of vision of Divinity, as Allah Most High said: “The [Prophet’s mind and] heart in no way falsified that which he saw.” (al-Qur’ân, 53: 11).         

Therefore, al-Ghazali discusses about three other phases with the fifth phase which is called the “grain of heart” (habbat al-qalb) is the source of love of the presence of Divinity. Whereas the sixth phase is the “inmost heart” (suwaydâ’ al-qalb) is a source of unveilings of the unseen (al-mukâshafah al-ghaybiyah) and the center of the sciences of spiritual intuition (al-‘ulûm al-laduniyah) and the origin of the secrets of the Divinity (al-ilâhiyyah). While, the seventh phase is called by him as the “core of the heart” (muhjat al-qalb), which is the source of the appearance of the lights of manifestation (anwâr al-tajalli).[xxii] These aspect of the heart like the habbat al-qalb and suwaydâ’ al-qalb is not suggested by any Qur’anic verse.

Al-Ghazali further mentions that the cleansing of the heart should be accompanied by the ornamentation of the soul (rûh), which is “the command of Allah”. He says that the rûh is a substance, subtle and luminous, which can be dispensing with nourishment. He also says that the rûh of everything is formed in the image of its body (jasadih), as the Apostle of Allah said: “Allah Most High created Adam in his image”[xxiii], meaning Allah created his form according to the image of his soul which is from the world of command. Therefore, al-Ghazali explains that the world command (‘alam al-amr) is an expression of the world, which does not possess quantity, quality and area because it became existence through al-kâf and al-nûn. He says, this kind of world is opposite of the world of creation because the latter appears through the means of matter and the extension of the days. To supports his idea, al-Ghazali quotes Qur’anic verse: “Who created the heavens and the earth in six days” (al-Qur’ân, 7: 54; 10:3; 11:7, 57:4).

By mentioning the specialty of rûh, al-Ghazali therefore, mentions that the rûhhas five states, which begin with the state of nonexistence (al-‘adam), the second is the state of existence (al-wujûd) in the world of the souls; the third is the state of its connection with the body (jasad); the fourth is the state of separation; and the fifth is the state of returning.[xxiv]

Al-Ghazali discussion of the effect which spiritual exercises will achieve, is particularly concerned with an understanding of two terms “nafs” and “rûh”, between which he makes a definite distinction as mentioned above. This distinction is paralleled by his opinion in the Ihyâ’ ‘Ulum al-Din, he defines his general use of the term nafs in his Ihyâ’ in the following way:

The first is that it means the thing (ma’nan), which unites the irascible and concupiscible power in man… This usage is that which prevails among the Sufis. For they mean by nafs the principle which unites the reprehensible qualities of a man. They affirm: One must strive against the nafsand break it. To this is the allusion in the Prophet’s utterance “You worst enemy is your nafs which is between your two sides”.[xxv]

As in Ihyâ’, he also uses, but only occasionally, nafs to mean what we would describe as the rûh. Thus in the Ihyâ’, al-Ghazali says: “The second thing [designated by nafs] is the subtle thing, which we have spoken of and which in reality is man. It is man’s soul and essence (dhât). But it is characterized by different qualities according to the difference of its states. When it is tranquil under the command [it is in tranquil subjection to Allah’s command] and free from agitation because of the opposition on the passions, it is called the soul at rest (al-nafs al-muthma’innah)”.[xxvi]

In general, al-Ghazali asserts a theory that the nafs of man is occupied with disobedience and following the Devil. Consequently, a black dot will appear in the rûh. When the disobedience of nafs increases, the blackness of the rûh will increase until it becomes wholly black. As a result, the doors of the benevolence of Allah Most High will be closed to it.  When the rûh becomes black and the door of light are closed against it, an action appropriate to that blackness will appears in the limbs. Thus al-Ghazali suggests that the clearing away of its blackness will be accomplished through faith.[xxvii]

According to al-Ghazali, tazkiyat al-nafs as jihad al-nafs (struggle of nafs). The Prophet described this struggle, jihad al-nafs, as the jihad al-akbar (big struggle) in this Hadith: “We returned from the jihad al-asghar to the jihad al-akbar.” His companions asked him, “What is the jihad al-akbar?” meaning, “What could be greater than fighting against unbelief, in the way of God and expecting to die at any moment?” He replied, “The jihadal-nafs.”

It is very difficult to fight one’s self. It is easy to fight one’s enemy because you know he is your enemy, but your self will never tell you it is your enemy. According to al-Ghazali, that reality need struggle [with purification of soul]. Purification of soul is applied with two way: first, to empty soul from bad morals [with takhalli], and second, to fill in soul with good morals [with tahalli]. According to al-Ghazali, the application of tazkiyat al-nafs need the training of soul (riyâdat) and the struggle of soul (mujâhadat).

Furthermore, tazkiyat an-Nafs according to al-Ghazali as the basis for development and improvement of the personality. It is a long, pro-active, and uphill task. It is not an easy esoteric rite or overnight formula. Misunderstanding of tazkiyatmanifests when people look for quick methods of becoming better. Some may visit graves of the righteous; some may repeat certain supplications for a given number of times. Yet others subject themselves to physical suffering in the hope that this will lead to spiritual purity. All of these are forms of escapism from facing the real challenges of tazkiyat al-nafs.

Therefore,the process of tazkiyat al-nafs needs preliminaries:

Good intentions: Tazkiyat al-nafs is not accidental. It is a pro-active process. It must be based on the good and sincere intention to please Allah and draw near to Him. The process of tazkiyat al-nafs can not be sustained if done for other reasons.

Commitment: Tazkiyat al-nafs can be a difficult processespecially at the start. Some may try and think of giving up. Continuing commitment is needed to be able to travel all the way to the end of the process.

Being true: The person undertaking tazkiyat al-nafs must be true to self, to others and to Allah. True to self means understanding and accepting yourself as you are with all the negatives and positives such that the negatives can be suppressed while the positives can be enhanced. Being true to others is saying and acting according to the truth and never deceiving or giving the wrong impressions.

Earnest entreaty to Allah: Tazkiyat al-nafs requires that a very strong desire and longing to turn to Allah and get closer to Him. This gives a sense of direction and a sense of purpose to the tazkiyat al-nafs efforts.

Renouncing materialism (zuhd): According to al-Ghazali, zuhdis part of the tazkiyat al-nafs.  Zuhd means giving priority to the after life. Preferring the material world is severely condemned by the Qur’an. The Hereafter is better than the material world (3:14-15). Zuhdhas been misunderstood by many down the centuries. It does not mean withdrawal from life and making no contribution to the building of a material civilization. Neither does it mean refusing to enjoy the bounties that Allah put on earth for the benefit of humans. Living like a hermit may not be the total or only meaning of Zuhd. Zuhd means belittling materialism and having a correct relation to material goods as things to be used by humans in the fulfillment of their duties to Allah and not as masters who control human behavior.

A person may own a lot of money and material goods but he knows that in front of Allah they are worth very little. He will not be intoxicated by nor worship material goods. He will have a higher scale of values that he refers to. His maximum pleasure will not be attained by material possessions. Zuhd also means not selling eternal values for the sake of temporary material advantage on earth; such a trade is indeed a losing trade. A human should live on earth as a stranger or a traveler in the knowledge that the life in the Hereafter is eternal and that all the time spent on earth should be used to prepare for the Hereafter.

The Technical Sense of al-Ghazali’s Tazkiyat al-Nafs
More or less the same or some such sense is conveyed by the word tazkiyat used as a technical term. According to al-Ghazali, literally it means as already stated above, purification and development to the stage of its perfection. Technically it conveys the sense of checking ourselves from erroneous tendencies and leanings and turning them to the path of virtue and piety (fear of God’s displeasure) and developing it to attain the stage of perfection. This sense of tazkiyat is borne out by the following verse of the Qur’ân:

“By the soul and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment as to its wrong and its right; - truly he succeeds that purifies it and he fails that corrupts it!” (al-Qur’ân – 91:7-10).

The above verse clarifies the issue. God has so ordered the soul that it has both the inclinations – good and evil, and man has been endowed with the power of distinction between the two; and the path of prosperity for man lies in choosing the side of the good in the struggle between it and the evil, and striving to make it prevail over the evil.

With rightly guided consciousness the extreme struggle to help the good prevail and to vanquish the evil is tazkiyat in the Qur’ânic sense of the term.[xxviii]

Thereafter, according to al-Ghazali, that the human can do a lot to refine the soul (Nafs). The Qur'an talks about humans who purified themselves and about human efforts toward refinement (al-Qur’ân, 35:18). Humans have been described by the Qur'an as clean (al-Qur’ân, 19:19). Some human self-refinement, tazkiyat, involves: correct and firm `aqîdah, fulfillment of acts of worship, avoiding the forbidden, generally being conscious of the Creator, and constant meditation about the creation. This is followed by personal development and improvement, which consist of a good character and behavior; assertiveness, and self-confidence. An individual may not succeed alone. Living in a righteous community surrounded by others is necessary to motivate and encourage refinement. Islam is a practical religion. Achievement of purity is through action. Good behavior, avoiding bad behavior, and being strong and assertive in making correct choices is the practical way to purity.[xxix]

With the sense of tazkiyat in view if we were to contemplate over it we must come to the conclusion that all of the arts and sciences dealing directly with our inner selves, medical science is the only one resembling the knowledge of tazkiyat. Medical science deals with the ailment of our physique and the treatment and cure thereof, whereas tazkiyat treats the subject of the ailments of the spirit and their eradication. But in spite of this resemblance there is also a great difference between the two. The ambit of the discussions of the medical science is very limited, dealing with only one aspect of our selves, the body and its ailments. On the contrary tazkiyat deals with all the apparent and hidden aspects of our selves. It critically judges all the powers and the capabilities of which we are constituted, discusses all our emotions and feelings and corrects and reforms them; it takes stock of all the variegated and multifaceted ties that we are bound with, and creates an order in and regulates them all under a particular principle and regulation. Our thoughts, our apprehensions, our inclinations, our movements, our eating and drinking, our engagements, entertainments, and interests, the daily routines of our lives, in short, no department and nothing that touches our lives is outside the pale of tazkiyat.[xxx]

The Real Task of Tazkiyat al-Nafs
And it is only that tazkiyat deals with all the aspects of ourselves or removing their evils presents the right sort of replacements, but the real job of tazkiyat lies beyond this discussion, critical study and correction. It also enters our souls from every angle in such a way that they become tranquillized and peaceful.

The tranquillization of the soul means that our knowledge may be founded on such a firm belief that no vicissitudes of distress and comfort or pain and pleasure may be able to shake and alter our trust in God and our expecting only good from Him, but that we may remain pleased with God and satisfied with His decrees. Similarly, the foundations of our deeds may be laid in such a firm character that no temptations, in adversity or prosperity and fear and hope, may take our feet off where the divine Sharî‘ah has planted, so that we may fulfill our mission of the demands made on us by God, and thus become His desirable servants. Such a tranquilized soul is the aim of tazkiyat. The Qur’ân addresses the tranquillized or peaceful soul in the following words:

“O, [you] soul, in complete rest and satisfaction! Come back you to your Lord; - well-pleased [yourself] and well-pleasing unto Him! Enter you, then, among My devotees! Yes, enter you My Heaven.” (Al-Qur’ân – 89:27-30).[xxxi]

Tazkiyat al-Nafs as Part of the Spiritual Health
According to al-Ghazali, tazkiyat al-nafs is part of the spiritual health, even tazkiyat al-nafs has relation with mental health. It means purification of the soul from all evil inclinations and its beautification with good values and virtues. This was actually the mission of the Prophet Muhammad -peace and blessings of Allah be upon him. Allah chose him and appointed him as our Teacher and Master for this purpose.

Dr. Muzammil H. Siddiqi has mentioned five important steps for spiritual growth: First, repentance (tawbah), second, remembrance of Allah (zikr); third, recitation of the Qur’an (tilâwah); fourth, righteousness and Charity (taqwâ, sadaqah); and, fifth, Supplication (du’â).[xxxii]

1.  Repentance (tawbah) means to “turn to Allah” with sincere heart and mind. It is to feel sorry and ashamed of any sins and mistakes and to ask Allah to forgive those sins and to cover a person with his mercy and kindness. Tawbahis one of the best ways to receive Allah’s blessings and His mercy. Allah says:

… And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards Allah, that ye may attain Bliss (al-Qur’ân, 24:31)

O ye who believe! Turn to Allah with sincere repentance: in the hope that your Lord will remove from you your ills and admit you to Gardens beneath which Rivers flow; the Day that Allah will not permit to be humiliated the Prophet and those who believe with him. Their Light will run forward before them and by their right hands, while they say, “Our Lord! Perfect our Light for us, and grant us Forgiveness: for You have power over all things.” (al-Qur’ân, 66:8)

2.  Remembrance of Allah (zikr): Zikr means to keep Allah always in one’s mind and also to mention His glory and praise Him. According to al-Ghazali, the means of clearing of the heart is zikr Allah, i.e. commemoration of God and concentration of every thought upon Him.[xxxiii]   Zikr is the nourishment of the soul. It keeps the spirit healthy and strong. Allah says:

“Those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allah: for without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find satisfaction” (al-Qur’ân, 13:28).

For zikr we should follow only the way that is given to us in the Book of Allah and by the Prophet -peace be upon him. Allah says:

And remember Him as He has directed you, even though, before this, ye went astray (al-Qur’ân, 2:198).

3.  Recitation of the Qur’an (tilâwah): The Qur’an is the Book of guidance as well as the Book of Healing. The recitation of the Qur’an heals the soul and makes it healthy and fresh. It should be done regularly with care, respect and understanding. Allah says:

We send down (stage by stage) in the Qur’an that which is a healing and a mercy to those who believe: to the unjust it causes nothing but loss after loss (al-Qur’ân, 17:82).

Those to whom We have sent the Book recite it as it should be recited: they are the ones that believe in it: those who reject it they are indeed the losers (al-Qur’ân, 2:121).

4.  Righteousness and Charity (Taqwâ and Sadâqah): Taqwa is the consciousness of Allah and obedience to Him. Bad deeds are wrong actions. They are harmful both physically and spiritually. They diminish the soul. While the good deeds help the spirit grow and become better and beautiful. Allah says:

“Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full Knowledge and is well-acquainted (with all things)” (al-Qur’ân, 49:13).

“But such as come to Him as Believers who have worked righteous deeds, for them are ranks exalted. Gardens of Eternity, beneath which flow rivers: they will dwell therein for aye: such is the reward of those who purify themselves” (al-Qur’ân, 20:75-76).

Charity and spending in the path of Allah is an excellent mean for spiritual health and growth. Zakat, Sadaqat and general Infâq fî Sabîl Allah are encouraged for this purpose. Allah says:

“But those most devoted to Allah shall be removed far from it (hell). Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification” (al-Qur’ân, 92:17-18).

5.  Supplication (Du’â): None of our efforts for the health, purification and growth of our souls will be successful without the help of Allah. It is for this reason we have to continuously seek His assistance and help. Allah says:

“When My servants ask you concerning Me, I am indeed close (to them): I listen to the prayer of every suppliant when he calls on Me: let them also, with a will, listen to My call, and believe in Me: that they may walk in the right way” (al-Qur’ân, 2:186).

And your Lord says: “Call on Me; I will answer your (Prayer): but those who are too arrogant to worship Me will surely find themselves in Hell, in humiliation!”

Epilogue
Al-Ghazali dealt vigorously with the theory of purification of soul (tazkiyat al-nafs). However, his approach method has a lot of influence in Islamic Sufism. 

The spirit of purification, growth and development and its final perfection will be visible in its actions everywhere. For instance the action of tazkiyat al-nafs may be performed on a tract of land and also on the inner self of a person. Although due to variations in the fields of action, there will be a difference in the form, yet in reality and in its object there will be no difference between the two. The tazkiyat of the tract of land will comprise clearing it of the weeds, brushwood and brambles, leveling it, ploughing it to make it soft and porous, then watering it so that it may become capable of developing the healthy seeds of some sort in keeping with its natural capacity, and take it to the final stage of blossoming and fruition.

The tazkiyat al-nafs of the inner self of a person involves eradication of erroneous thought and false assumptions, the correction and leveling of the perversions and angularities created by the corrupt morality and bad habits; removal of the ills produced by the blind emulations and ritualism; treatment and cure of the evil of drooping spirits and cowardice created by craving for ephemeral carnal pleasures so that his eyes may be opened and his mind may become capable of thinking freely, his drooping spirits may be raised, his habits may be reformed and through development of his mental, moral and spiritual powers.

The tazkiyat al-nafs has relation with moral building (akhlak), individual growth and spiritual health. Tazkiyat al-nasf as jihad al-nafs [jihad akbar] for to empty the soul from bad morals [with takhalli], and to fill in soul with good morals [with tahalli]. Finally, the process of tazkiyat al-nafs will appear the pure men. However, al-Ghazali’s tazkiyat al-nafshas relation with individual development and mental health.

NOTES:
[i] Tasawuf is The term 'Sufism' (tasawwuf, in Arabic) developed in the fifteenth century and is derived from the Arabic word suf, meaning wool. The word was initially used to speak of Muslim ascetics who wore clothes made of the coarse wool to signify their detachment from the material world. It is also suggested that the term originates from the safa (purity) or from the suffah, the 'People of the Bench' who were engaged in discourses during the time of the Prophet Muhammad.

[ii] Ibn al-Jawzee narrated in al-Thabat ‘Inda al-Mamat("Firmness at the Time of Death") from al-Ghazzali’s brother Ahmad: "On Monday [14 Jumada al-Akhira] at the time of the dawn prayer my brother Abu Hamid made his ablution, prayed, then said: ‘Bring me my shroud.’ He took it, kissed it and put it on his eyes, saying: ‘We hear and obey in readiness to enter the King’s presence.’ Then he stretched his legs, facing the Qibla, and died before sunrise – may Allah sanctify his soul!" 

[iii] Al-Subki, Tabaqat al-Shafi`iyyah al-Kubra, vol. VI, pp. 191-193

[iv] F. R. Anshari, “Tazkiyya: the Role of Prophet”, Islamic Order, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1983, p. 11.

[v] Al-Ghazali, al-Munqidz min al-Dlalâl. Kairo: Silislah Tsaqafat Islamiyah, 1961, p. 47. Abu Bakar Abu Bakar Abd al-Raziq, Ma`a al-Ghazali fî al-Munqidz min al-Dlalâl, Kairo: Dar al-Qaumiyyah, t.t.,  p. 278; Abu al-Wafa al-Ghanimi al-Taftazani, Madkhal Ilâ al-Tasawwuf al-Islâm, Kairo: Dâr al-Saqafat Li al-Nasyr wa al-Tauzi`, 1983, p. 157.

[vi] www.angelfire.com

[vii] See Abu Thalib al-Makky, Qût al-Qulûb, Cairo, 1960, Vol. 2, p. 251.

[viii] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’ al-Haqâiq bi Tajrîd al-‘Alâ’iq, (ed) M.J. Casasy Manrique, Uppsala, 1937, p. 17; Che Zarina Sa’ari, A Purification of Soul According to Sufis: A Study of al-Ghazali’s Theory, al-Afkar, Journal of Aqidah & Islamic Thought, University of Malaya, Mei-Juni 2002, p. 103.

[ix] Al-Ghazali, Ihyâ’ ‘Ulûm al-Dîn, Vol. 3, p. 55.

[x] Look: al-Ghazali, Mi’yâr  al-‘Ilm fî Fann al-Manthîq, Beirut: 1982, p. 50.

[xi] Al-Ghazali, Ihyâ’ ‘Ulûm al-Dîn, Vol. 3, p. 54-55.

[xii] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, op. cit., p. 17-18.

[xiii] Al-Ghazali, ibid, p. 18.

[xiv] Che Zarina Sa’ar, op. cit., p. 104.

[xv] Al-Bukhari, Sahîh al-Bukhâri, Kitab al-Iman, Vol. I, Beirut, 1981, p. 42.

[xvi] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, p. 19.

[xvii] Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, Vol. 3, Beirut, t.t., p. 82.

[xviii] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, op. cit., p. 21; Che Zarina Sa’ari, op. cit, p. 106.

[xix] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, op. cit., p. 21

[xx] Al-Ghazali, ibid.

[xxi] Che Zarina Sa’ari, op. cit., p. 107.

[xxii] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, op. cit., p. 21; Che Zarina, op. cit., p. 108.

[xxiii] Al-Bukhari, Sahîh al-Bukhâri, “Kitâb al-Isti’zan”, Vol. 8, p. 43

[xxiv] See al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, p. 54

[xxv] Al-Ghazali, Jâmi’, op. cit., p. 17; Ihyâ’ op. cit., Vol. 3, p. 4.

[xxvi] Al-Ghazali, Ihyâ’, Vol. 3, op. cit., p. 4.

[xxvii] See Che Zarina Sa’ari, op. cit., p. 57. 

[xxviii]see Amîn Ahsân Islâhî, The Literal Meaning of Tazkiyat: Its Aim and Scope (www.angelfire.com). 

[xxix] See www.commhlth.medic.ukm

[xxx] Cf. ibid.

[xxxi] Ibid. 

[xxxii] See Dr. Muzammil H. Siddiqi (www.pakistanlink.com)

[xxxiii] Al-Ghazali, al-Munqidh, op. cit., p. 20; R.A. Nicholson, The Idea of Personality in Sufism, Delhi: Jayyed Press, 1976,  p. 39 

(Dr. Mukhtar Solihin, M.A.:  Researcher of al-Ghazali, and lecturer of Sufism, and Deputy Dean Faculty of Ushuluddin of the National  Islamic University ‘Sunan Gunungjati’ – Bandung, Indonesia)

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