| Author: Sa'diyya Shaikh " The manipulation of sacred text has always been a structural characteristic of the practice of power in Muslim societies" Fatima Mernissi. 1. Introduction Qur'anic scholarship over the past fourteen centuries has developed into a prolific and highly specialised field. Historically this discipline has primarily remained the domain of men and has chiefly represented their experiences and worldviews. This male bias has resulted in the systematic exclusion of women's perspectives from the dominant religious discourses. In this paper I will show how the practice of patriarchal power in medieval Muslim societies has been mediated through understandings of the Qur'an. I will examine and analyze medieval Qur'anic exegesis in order to focus on how the practice of religious power defined and reflected existing gender ideology and gender relations. I will argue that the ideological tenets embedded in a patriarchal understanding of the Qur'an and Islam foster a mode of gender relations which practically dis-empower Muslim women. My particular interest in this study is directed at the relationship between Islamic gender ideology and its implications for violence against women. I begin with a preliminary outline of the significance of the Qur'an in Muslim societies and the related centrality of exegesis. Here I provide a rationale for my focus on the interpretations of particular exegetes. Secondly, I describe my methodology which is the application of feminist hermeneutics to the exegetical studies. Thirdly, I proceed with my own analysis of the exegesis. Here I focus on the interpretations of the verse Q.4:34 as the index of socio-religious gender constructions. 2. The Qur'an and its Interpretation "As God's own words Qur'anic statements are normative for the thought and behaviour of Muslims" Jane McAuliffe. The centrality of the Qur'an in a Muslim worldview has been well recorded. It is generally perceived by Muslims as the ultimate reference point, the distinguishing criterion (al-Furqan) for good and evil and as the transcendent authority which sets parameters and standards for human existence. Consequently it occupies centre-stage in the Muslim religious imaginaire. It thus influences social structure, ideas of normative human relations and boundaries for appropriate behaviour. Hence the Qur'an is not only a religious text but also a profoundly political text which shapes the understandings of Muslim societies. Due to this powerful position of the Qur'an in Muslim consciousness it is appropriate to examine its implications for gender relations. The Qur'an mediates itself into social and collective consciousness through human understanding. Therefore in analysing the application of the Qur'an to society and gender relations it is necessary to examine the authoritative mediations of the Qur'an. Qur'anic understandings do not enter socio-cultural vacuums but are presented into already symbolically and culturally meaningful contexts. Hence Qur'anic readers and interpreters bring to the texts their own "prior-texts", their own worldviews and their own traditions of meaning informed by particular socio-historical positioning. Thus the creation of meaning of and from the Qur'an fundamentally involves the human interpretive attribution. Qur'anic scholar Richard Martin asserts that: ‘getting at the meanings must focus on the interpretations of meaning, which means the interpreter and his\her historical\cultural horizon of understanding’. Historically the most powerful and authoritative interpretive body of Qur'anic scholarship is known as tafsîr (exegesis). Adams asserts that tafsîr is a critical index of Muslim self-understanding. According to Adams: there is probably no richer or more important key to the basic always evolving significance of the Qur'an in the Muslim religious consciousness than the tradition of Tafsîr writing. Given the above, it may be inferred that the exegetical texts reflect the dynamic interaction between sacred text, consciousness and social reality. I believe that it is at the nexus of these three critical junctures that the religious constructions of gender are most powerful and influential. I have chosen to focus on the exegetical writings of selected medieval Islamic scholars to analyse the historical scriptural world of gender within Islamic discourse. My aim is to elicit how gender is conceived, imagined, and created by these interpreters of the Qur'an. I will analyse the interpretations of three classical exegetes, namely, Abu Ja far Muhummad b. Jarir al-Tabari (839-922) and Abu al-Qasim Mahmud b. Umar al-Zamakshari (1075-1144) Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149-1210). Spanning the period from the ninth century to the thirteenth century, they represent classical medieval scholarship. Al-Tabari was a traditionist, al-Zamakshari a Mu'tazilite and al-Razi an Asharite. My rationale for selecting these scholars is based on the fact that they are viewed as leading exegetical authorities among Islamic orthodoxy. Their work represents the dominant evolving historical legacy of traditional Islamic interpretation. It also provides a window into the socio-cultural gender norms which informed their interpretations of the Qur'an. They represent historically significant schools of traditional Islamic thought spanning three centuries and their interpretations are taught and transmitted as authoritative understandings of the Qur'an in most traditional Islamic institutions. In South Africa, as elsewhere, most of the traditionally trained Muslim leaders have been schooled in these classical texts which then inform their own perspectives. These perspectives are transmitted into society by virtue of their roles as religious leaders, marriage counsellors and Islamic legal advisors. Hence their understandings impact upon notions of normative gender relations and consequently on the way in which religious discourses of violence against wives are conceptualised. 3. Methodology My approach to the study of tafsîr is informed by my own positioning as a Muslim feminist. In terms of intellectual foundations I am strongly influenced by the progressive perspectives of modernist scholar Fazlur Rahman (d.1988). I proceed from the premise that there are significant and relevant overlaps between Islam and certain feminist discourses. I am suggesting that there is a profound confluence between the pervasive Qur'anic ethos of social justice and feminism's appeal for human equality. I will summarize a working definition of feminism as follows: an ideology for social transformation which aims to resist the oppression of women and advances the ideals of justice, equality and anti-sexism. Furthermore there are a number of extremely valuable research tools developed in both secular and Christian feminist scholarship which may be utilized, albeit critically, in the examination of gender in Islam and Muslim societies. It is with these interdisciplinary assumptions that I embark on an examination of medieval Qur'anic tafsîr. Historically most tafsîr (exegeses) were written almost exclusively by men. In examining a historical narrative of gender from the tafsîr of these scholars, I will employ a particular mode of analysis, namely, feminist hermeneutics. Feminist hermeneutics is a "theory, method or perspective for understanding and interpretation" which is sensitive to and critical of sexism. I approach the tafsîr texts with a "hermeneutic of suspicion" which is alert to both explicit and implicit patriarchal bias. A hermeneutic of suspicion does "not trust or accept interpretive traditions as 'truth'" but rather adopts a stance of suspicion. The aim is to critically evaluate and expose patriarchal structures, values and male-centred concerns. This approach focuses on the text as an ideological androcentric product. Thus I approach the selected exegetical works as representative of a patriarchal historical cultural milieu. I will also use a particular mode of feminist hermeneutics derived from a model presented by biblical scholar Gerald West which involves "reading behind the text". This mode focuses on sociological and historical reconstructions of the society behind the text. Accordingly, I will excavate from tafsir texts, which are predominantly male records and understandings of reality, underlying images of the ordinary women. The aim is to redress the silences on women's lives, to lift out the marginalised voices, to reconstruct the absent female and to be vigilant of the patriarchal assumptions. According to Sakenfield: Our contemporary responsibility is to listen to past and present voices who have been heard least, including women, because hearing voices that have been ignored or silenced enables the community to question its own assumptions and thus to have a greater likelihood of encountering the God who seeks to encounter us. This article then examines the evolving, gendered worldviews of the authoritative Islamic legacy through an analysis of the historical interpretations of the Qur'an. Specifically the aim is to apply a critical feminist hermeneutic to the tafsir texts. In so doing I will subject some of the formative gender discourses in traditional Islamic exegesis to ideological examination and critique. The particular issue which constitutes the focal point of such an analysis is the relationship between gendered Islamic consciousness and discourses of violence against women by their husbands. 4. Qur'anic Exegesis, Gender Ideology and Violence In my analysis of the exegetical literature, Sûrah Nisa verse 34 (Q.4:34 - from now on also referred to as the nushuz verse) is used as a central hermeneutical key around which the debate on gender constructions and violence against women will unfold. The translation of this verse reads as follows: 'Men are (qawwamun) the Protectors and maintainers of women, because God has given the one more strength than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous (salihat) women are devoutly obedient (qanitat), and guard in their husbands absence what God would have them guard'. As to those women on whose part you fear (nushuz) disloyalty and ill conduct. Admonish them (first), refuse to share their beds (next) and (last) beat them But if they return again to obedience seek not means against them for God is the most high, Great above you The rationale for focusing on this verse is due to the fact that it has been understood to condone violence against wives. Interpreted to be espousing hierarchical gender relations, these verses are seen to create the space for the "legitimate" physical punishment of women by their husbands. 4.1. The Occasion of Revelation The occasion of revelation (sabab ul-nuzul) of this verse is presented by the exegetes as follows. A woman whose husband had slapped her left the marital home and complained to the Prophet. He condoned her departure from the home of her husband, advising her to maintain the separation until revelation provided guidance. It was at this point that the revelation of the Q.4:34 was reported to have occurred. Zamakashari adds that the Prophet, prior to revelation, permitted the wife and her father to demand compensation (qisas) from the husband. Thus revelation of these verses abrogated the Prophet's recommendation and he is reported to have responded by saying "we (meaning himself) wanted something and God wanted something else and what God wants is best". This context of revelation of the verse sets the scenario for the rest of its interpretation by these scholars. I have divided my analysis of their exegesis into four parts. Firstly, I present reflections on interpretations of qiwama, which provides the framework for the definition of gender. Secondly, I analyse the definitions of the qanitat which is the term used to describe righteous women. Thirdly, I examine constructions of the nashiza, the "disobedient" woman. Finally, I assess their notions of female repentance. This analysis follows the chronological arrangement of the verse in the exegetical style of the classical scholars. Simultaneously it makes holistic thematic connections between the interrelated exegetical narratives of gender. 4.2. Qiwama: The Framework of Gender Relations 'Men are the Protectors and maintainers (qawwamun) of women, because God has given the one more strength than the other...' In defining the relationship of qiwama the medieval commentators presented their framework for understanding gender relations. Al-Tabari stated that the relationship of qiwama is premised on the material preference that men had been granted. He suggested that this preference implied the financial responsibility of men to provide their wives with marriage dowers (mahr), and with financial maintenance (nafaqa). Thus al-Tabari conceptualised the relationship of qiwama as contingent on a socio-economic phenomenon rather than some inherent quality of man or woman per se. Two centuries later also during Abbassid rule, al-Zamakshari interprets qiwama as the unambiguous and categorical rulership (musaytirun) of men over women. He suggests that the male-female relationship parallels the relationship between sovereign political leader and a male citizen. In the same way that a political leader instructs his subjects to perform or abstain from particular acts, so do also men command and forbid their women. This comparison reflects prevalent socio-political images of autocratic political authorities over ordinary, male citizens. In this way state political power relations have a mimetic effect on domestic politics and this illustrates the fluidity between "private" and "public" discourses. Al-Zamakshari asserts that the relationship of qiwama is based on natural preferences which God has granted to men over women. Writing a generation after al-Zamakshari, al-Razi, the Asharite, concurs with this view. These exegetes' understandings of humanity is based on the premise of intrinsic natural differences between men and women. Both these exegetes, al-Zamakshari and al-Razi, regard men as naturally gifted with a number of superior attributes which range from intellect and determination to literacy and the ability to ride. Due to this notion of a qualitatively superior male constitution, they argue that men are natural leaders in the spheres of religion, politics, the judiciary, and marriage. Thus in presenting a set of criteria for difference between men and women, al-Zamakshari and al-Razi conflate "biological" and socially constructed potentials. This religious discourse of intrinsic gender difference pervades the rest of their interpretations and points to underlying anthropological assumptions. Such religious or theological anthropologies underpinning the exegesis will now be excavated, examined and interrogated. 4.2.1. Qiwama: Theological Anthropology and Difference The notion of a theological anthropology raises the question of what it means to be human within a religious framework. This involves an analysis of how religious discourses of values, beliefs and practices define human beings. It is therefore an implicit component of any religious discourse. The questions that arise from an inquiry into theological anthropology are as follows: What does it mean to be human? What is the vision of humanity? What goal for human life is proposed in religious scripture? These questions are integrally related to religious understandings of gender and gender relations. Al-Zamakshari and al-Razi's definition of male qiwama (rulership; musaytirun) as pointed out earlier, is premised on hierarchical and dualistic anthropological categories. Their framework positions men and women as polar opposites whose interactions reflect power relations of dominance and subjugation. Men and notions of masculinity are associated with rationality, intellect, and spirituality. In contrast, women and "femininity" are constructed as emotional, irrational, carnal and sexual. Thus patriarchal anthropologies posit a transcendence/immanence polarity, a body/mind dualism where the male pole is considered more powerful and more valuable than the female. This dichotomy translates into a hierarchical understanding of humanity which prioritises mind over body, reason over passion, spirituality over carnality, and male over female. Patriarchal anthropology is apparent in the interpretations of those exegetes who interpret qiwama as the God-given relationship of power and authority that men are granted over women. They consider male qiwama to be based on an inherent intellectual and spiritual superiority. Accordingly, they argue that all social roles that require intellectual or spiritual strength, such as political and religious leadership, be viewed as exclusively male. Zamakshari and al-Razi's interpretation of qiwama as the "natural" preference that men are granted may be seen to reflect the normative gender ideology and gender roles prevalent in these exegetes' socio-political and cultural realities. As described earlier a hermeneutic of suspicion involves reading behind the text since silences and omissions betray an ideological bias. These silences and omissions together with the statements of the exegetical text may be interpreted to reflect the socio-cultural realities behind the text. In terms of the exegetes' understandings of natural male intellectual superiority, I infer that the development and manifestation of women's intelligence (as defined by male discourses of knowledge) were absent or marginalised. Their exegeses therefore imply that the most visible arenas of knowledge discourse were unavailable and inaccessible to women. This also becomes apparent in the language of the exegetes who regularly address the male reader as "you" while women are referred to as "they", the third party or the 'other'. An example of this in al-Razi's writing: "If YOU [emphasis mine] fear something in your heart from your women...if there is something in THEIR [emphasis mine] behaviour...". This language also implies that the prevailing readership and scholarship was primarily male. What is evident from the exegesis is that the multi-dimensional differences between men and women in a specific historical context are indiscriminately clustered together as natural and eternal givens. Acquired skills or culturally determined roles are constructed as "facts", "truth" and inherent properties of maleness and femaleness. The anthropological paradigm of difference and dualism used by the exegetes in their interpretation of qiwama frames their understanding of women. This is explored further in their interpretation of the rest of the verse which discusses the qanitat, referring to the righteous or normative woman and then the nashiza, the "disobedient" or non-conforming woman. 4.3. The Normative Woman Q.4:34 describes the "righteous" women as: Therefore the righteous (salihat) women are devoutly obedient (qanitat), and guard in their husbands absence what God would have them guard. The verse links salihat, (meaning those women who do "good", are "pious" and "righteous") to qanitat. The word qanitat, meaning "devout" or "obedient" women, has provoked considerable controversy amongst the exegetes. Among the classical exegetes the disputed point related to whom the "object" or recipient of this female obedience was. Was it God?, her husband, or both? Al-Tabari's tafsir presents qanitat as a contested definition without committing himself to identifying the object of obedience. However, both al-Zamakshari and al-Razi combine and equally prioritise the importance of female obedience to both man and God. In fact, al-Razi states that obedience to God and obedience to one's husband are both DEMANDED of the righteous woman. He adds that "the woman is not pious who is not also obedient to her husband". Thus women's obedience to their husbands assume sacred proportions. al-Razi's association of a God-conscious woman as one who is also obedient to her husband introduces a discourse of religious and spiritual hierarchy. The relationship between husband and wife becomes instrumental in the relationship between female believer and God. By suggesting that a religious woman is necessarily an obedient wife, marital hierarchy is prescribed at a religious level. Thus sacralised male authority and marital hierarchy become foregrounded in the relationship between female-believer and God. In this spiritual hierarchy God occupies the pinnacle, men the centre, as mediators, and women (as well as children and male slaves), the bottom echelon. The final condition or description of righteous women in this verse is that they should "guard in their husbands absence what God would have them guard". All three exegetes interpret this to mean that a wife must guard her husband's wealth and her sexuality in his absence. The rationale that al-Razi provides for this female chastity is two-fold. Firstly female chastity is considered necessary so that the MAN'S honour is not violated and secondly so that she does not give birth to children from seed other than his. The control and ownership of women's sexuality is central to most male interpretations of the verse. Such readings implicitly evoke the sense that the sexual fidelity of wives form an integral part of their religious duty to God. The sacralising of female sexual fidelity can be construed as the elevation of patriarchal sexual politics to the divine realm. My critique of this part of the exegesis is based on the fact that the ban against female adultery is not premised on a moral imperative of the female believers' relationship with God. Rather, the motivation for her abstinence from adultery is based on the issue of MALE honour and maintaining a pure lineage. Hence, even in the depiction of female piety or spirituality, her sexuality and relationship to men is instrumental. This implies that in terms of women, the God-believer relationship becomes secondary and only accessible via a "correct" man-woman relationship. This inadvertently projects men as divine intermediaries if not demi-gods, as the objects and instruments of female accountability. A feminist critique which is pertinent in this regard is "it is idolatrous to make males more 'like God' than females". Finally, the textual neighboring of women's sexuality and men's wealth as 'objects' for protection continues the narrative of male possession. These are both depicted as the objects to which a husband has sole rights of possession and which are instrumental to his comfort and tranquility. Accordingly, women are constructed as the property of men, to be owned and possessed. Such discourses are premised on power relationships of control, male domination and female subjugation. They function to objectify and dehumanise women, leaving them significantly disempowered. Moreover, the discourse of male ownership allows for unfettered male power which in turn creates the space for the occurrence of legitimate and privatised violence against women. It is precisely this violent potential which is the focal point of the exegesis in relation to the rest of the verse: the issue of solutions or recourses against the "disobedient" woman (nashiza). 4.4. Nushuz as Female "Disobedience" Having defined the normative woman, the exegetes proceed to deal with the case of deviation from this norm i.e. the instance of aberrance (nushuz). Q.4:34: As to those women on whose part you fear (nushuz) disloyalty or ill-conduct Admonish them (first), refuse to share their beds (next) and (last) beat them But if they return again to obedience seek not means against them for God is the most high , Great above you. Literally "nushuz" means to protrude or project out from the ground or a hillock. However, it is metaphorically defined by al-Tabari as "isti la" which refers to the case where a woman is arrogant, refuses to have sexual relations with her husband or refuses to submit to his authority. The classical exegetes begin their discussion of nushuz by referring to the cases of suspected nushuz. In this case it may be purely subjective male suspicion of female infidelity which may lead a husband to label his wife as disobedient, a nashiza. This suspicion creates the space for irrational and often unjustified male jealousy, which is often among the primary reasons for men beating their wives. All three exegetes are unanimous that a woman who refuses to have sex with her husband is nashiza. The exegetes then proceed to interpret the Qur'anic response to female nushuz. 4.4.1. Male Response to Nushuz 4.4.1.1. "Verbally admonish them": Fa izuhunna In their interpretation of the Qur'anic term fa izuhunna, "verbally admonish them" (i.e. the women), all three exegetes suggest that the husband should threaten his recalcitrant wife with God's punishment. They suggest that she is to be reminded to fear God and hence refrain from disobedience. This invocation of the presence and fear of God operates as a means of wielding male disciplinary power. The construction of an omnipresent God watching over male interests operates as the means to instill female discipline. Male power, with its appeal to God's constant surveillance, creates self-policing female subjects. This process is underpinned by the assumption that ... it is more efficient and profitable to place people under surveillance than to subject them to some exemplary penalty. 4.4.1.2 "Separate them from your nuptial beds": Wahjuruhunna The next disciplinary measure for persistent female disobedience is that men leave the marital bed. Despite the obvious meaning of literally separating beds, the exegetes' interpretations range from confining the wife in the home, to "abandon" her during sex, that is, refusing to talk to her while having sex with her, to tying her up and forcing her to have sex . This illustrates how a simple recommendation to separate beds, when interpreted by patriarchal lenses, can be construed to mean have sex with a wife even against her will. This is tantamount to marital rape. Such an interpretation explicitly condones marital rape and epitomises oppressive and abusive gender relations. Male sexuality is depicted as unapologetically omnipotent. There is no male accountability or recognition of the woman as human. It is clear that such a framework which views women as utilitarian "objects" is inherently violent, and explicitly proposes extreme sexual violation and dehumanisation of women. 4.4.1.2.1 Nushuz and female sexuality As pointed out previously the exegetes interpret the nashiza as the sexually "rebellious" woman. She is either one who refuses to have sex with her husband or one who is suspected of sexual infidelity. In both cases her sexuality is beyond the control of her husband. This preoccupation with controlling a wanton female sexuality is a pervading undercurrent of the medieval Islamic worldview. Fatna Sabbah describes this construction as the "omnisexual women". Accordingly, womanhood is defined as a powerful sexual principle which is threatening, uncontrollable, and potentially anarchic to male order and stability. Moreover, her supposedly consuming sexuality is accompanied by an active intelligence or guile (kayd) which is solely directed at the maintenance and satisfaction of her libido. Sabbah and Malti-Douglas illustrate how classical and contemporary Islamic discourse feared that women's sexual allurement would beguile and distract men from religious devotion. It is in reaction to this threat of the "omnisexual" woman that many discourses of male control are created, including the traditional Muslim ideal of a submissive, docile and obedient women. The preoccupation with the control of an overwhelming female sexuality once again demonstrates the existence of a dualistic anthropology. Women's existence is determined by biology. She incarnates the "lower" body or sexual principle which needs to be restrained and controlled by the "higher" spiritual and intellectual male principle. Hence the ideal female role is an obedient wife whose sexuality and womb are securely controlled by her husband. I suggest that the inability of classical exegetes to synthesise a unity between sexual, spiritual, emotional and intellectual facets of self has resulted in what Ruether terms "a case of projection". Accordingly the male exegetes "as monopolisers of theological self-definition, project onto women their rejection of their own 'lower' selves." This underlying ideology of hierarchical dualism is innately conflictual and when women do not acquiesce to meet their defined roles, the possibility of violence ensues. This is reflected in the interpretation of the final and controversial male Qur'anic recourse to female disobedience (nushuz), that of the darb, "to strike", or to "beat". 4.4.1.3. Wadribuhunna: The Beating The final recourse in the Qur'anic verse reads: "... wadribuhunna (and strike them)" Al-Tabari interprets this last resort as "to strike her without hurting her (gayr mubara)". Al-Razi appears the least prone to offer an endorsement of violence. He interprets this part of the verse by saying that while hitting is permissible, to desist from it is better. Here he quotes the hadith where the Prophet says that men who beat their wives are not "among the better men". Al-Razi suggests that this is a clear indication that it is preferable not to hit women. He suggests that the rationale for the three-step conflict resolution (first to admonish, then to separate beds and finally to strike) was not a license but rather a restriction on prevalent male violence. Al-Razi's interpretation should be understood in the context of a misogynist and machismo culture where men regularly beat their wives. It was considered an exhibition of strength and "manliness" or masculine virility (murruwa). In such a context a statement that men who hit their wives were not amongst the "better ones" undermined and countered the prevalent misogynistic values and norms. Even when al-Razi concedes that men may ultimately resort to the darb, he attempts to practically abrogate the violence by stating that only a folded handkerchief or miswak (a small twig used as a toothbrush) could be used for such purposes. This recommendation implies that the "darb" was a token or symbol of male authority, which al-Razi appears quite willing to maintain. However it was the substantively violent component of the ‘darb’ which he tried to reduce through interpretation. Al-Zamakshari, unlike al-Razi, is unapologetic about condoning violence in his interpretation of the ‘darb’. He quotes a hadith where the Prophet is reported to have told the husband to "Hang your whip in such a place that the family can see it". However he concedes that this hadith is weak (daif) since it has a weak chain of narration. The assertion and perpetual visibility of male power and control is evidently not only directed at the wife but at the broader family. This type of interpretation and narrative provides religious legitimacy for a worldview which sanctions violence against women. For example, even al-Razi who makes constant practical recommendations to men to be restrained and prudent still acknowledges the ideology of acceptable male violence against women. Within this mentality the female body becomes a political anatomy...where it enters a machinery of power that explores it, breaks it down and rearranges it...this mechanics of power defines how one may have a hold of another's body not only so that one may do as one wishes, but also that one may operate as one wishes, with the techniques and efficiency that one determines. This discipline produces subjected and...docile bodies. Thus I propose that the narrative and worldview of the exegetes aims at producing docile and subjugated female beings. The "disobedient" woman (nashiza) is seen as aberrant and the religious psychology inherent in the exegesis condones corporal punishment against her. Normativity demands that the female be docile and obedient and the non-conformist who contravenes this order of things needs to be disciplined even if such discipline includes violence. 4.5. The Repentant Woman The last part of the verse deals with the repentant nashiza: '...But if they return again to obedience seek not means against them for God is the most high, Great above you'. In urging men to forgive the repentant woman al-Zamakshari reminds men that while they may have power over their subordinates, Allah has power over men. He quotes a hadith where the Prophet saw a man about to hit a slave with a whip and said: "Oh, Abu Masud, Allah is more powerful over you than you are over the slave" and consequently Abu Masud threw the whip away and freed the slave. Equating the status of a woman to that of a slave appears to be a pervading notion in the medieval universe. The medieval Islamic scholar Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d.1111) stated thatmarriage is "a type of slavery" (naw min al-riqq) and that the wife is the slave of her husband (raqiqa lahu) and she is obligated to obey all his orders except for anything that entails sin. In this stratified and hierarchical worldview men are more human than both free women and slaves. In this context violence against subordinates, whether they are women or male slaves, appears to be acceptable. In fact the medieval Islamic world, as reflected in its general legislative culture, saw the punishment of the body as a normative disciplinary measure for all citizens. However free men were subject to such punishment only within the public sphere, whereas women and male slaves were also subject to such discipline in the home. Al-Razi's commentary on this final part of the verse reasserts a spiritual hierarchy by illustrating the inextricable association between man and God: Men are not to seek a path against women purely to demonstrate their physical superiority and power, because God is the most powerful. Despite God's exaltation he has not burdened you beyond your capacity of endurance. Therefore do not demand love from your wife when she is unable to do so. God does not continuously punish the repentant sinner once he has returned to obedience. Therefore, if a wife terminates her disobedience and repents, forgive her and do not harbour feelings of vengeance. Finally, despite God's omnipresence, he is content with judging you by your external behaviour and does not hold you accountable for the secrets within your heart. Therefore judge women by their overt behaviour and do not pursue them about their feelings concerning love and enmity. This is the most distinct parallel drawn between God and men. While on the surface it is a plea directed at men to be merciful towards women, again the implicit pattern of gender power relations is one premised on structural hierarchy and paternalism. There is an explicit and primary relationship between men and God and similarly there is an explicit and primary relationship between men and women. Implicitly, the human- God relationship only engages men. In this way al-Razi effectively silences and marginalises the direct relationship between women and God. Salient amongst the God-images of the classical exegetes are the divine qualities of omnipotence, omniscience, benevolence and absolute dominance. This is evidently paralleled in the positioning of man to woman. Given the above, I suggest that the relationship between men and women is dialectically fashioned on the relationship between men and God. This analogy was also evident in the exegetes definitions of the qanitat (righteous) women. However, a less cynical interpretation could understand al-Razi to be placing limitations on the husband. In terms of the context where violence was normative, the reminder to men that "God is above you" was effectively an attempt to instill in men a sense of accountability. In this way it was aimed at reducing the sense of unfettered power that men enjoyed both psychologically and practically and to deflate, albeit ironically, their 'God-complexes' in relation to women. It is within such a context that commentators interpreted this verse as a restriction on male power. It reflects the contextual realities of male power and female powerlessness. The relationship between meaning and context is thus primary and inextricable. 4.6 Conclusion In this paper I have analysed and critiqued a selection of authoritative medieval Qur'anic tafasir (exegeses). I began by examining the importance of the Qur'an in a Muslim worldview and the related significance of interpretation. I then provided a brief outline of the relevance of feminism and feminist hermeneutical methodology. This was followed by an analysis of the medieval exegeses of Q.4:34. It included an examination of firstly, the religious framework of normative gender relations (qiwama), secondly, the constructions of righteous women (qanitat), thirdly, the "disobedient" women (nashiza) and finally, the repentant women. The interpretive discourses of gender employed by classical exegetes provides a window into the gender relations of their socio-historical contexts. Their hermeneutical lenses are evidently created by a patriarchal worldview and thus their interpretations are the ideological products of a male-centred society. These texts constitute the religio-cultural legacy of Islam which provide the vehicle for the reception of the Qur'an in the minds of Muslims. They are instrumental in the transmission of a consciousness and worldview that implicitly and sometimes explicitly legitimates violence against women. The purpose of this paper was to examine the ideological assumptions embedded in the authoritative interpretations of the Qur'an. These exegetical studies are indicative of the structural complicity of religion in discourses of violence against women. However, even within such patriarchal discourses there persists a subversive element. It has been demonstrated how al-Razi consistently attempts to abrogate and minimise the violence inherent in darb ("beating"). Both al-Razi and al-Zamakshari state explicitly that the verse Q.4:34 functions to place a limitation on the power and authority of men and to restrict their retributive action against their wives. A verse which in contemporary understanding can be seen to create a space for the violation of women, in a medieval context may be arguing to limit the physical violation of women. There is thus a dynamic interplay between context and hermeneutics. The hermeneutical lenses of the classical exegetes has and continue to inform authoritative Islamic discourses. However it is necessary to challenge and critically engage their gender ideology and interpretations of the Qur'an in the contemporary Muslim world. It is vital to provide alternative constructions of women and men if we believe in the dynamism of Islam and the continuing relevance of the Quran to people in their full humanity. Source: http://theothervoices.org.za/Religionsa/jotafs.htm In Shaikh, S. (1997). Exegetical Violence: Nushuz in Quranic Gender Ideology. Journal for Islamic Studies, 17, 49-73. |
Exegetical Violence: Nushuz in Quranic Gender Ideology
Fundamentals Of A Happy Marriage
Author: Shahina Siddiqui
Faith: The most basic and essential attribute of a Muslim marriage is the common faith that binds the couple.
Since Islam is a way of life and not just a religion confined to weekly worship it becomes an integral part of a Muslim’s life. The frame of reference shared by the couple eases communication and sharing of values which is not possible in an interfaith marriage. It is highly recommended that faith play an important role in the developing a loving relationship.
For example, as the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) said, that when a husband feeds his wife, he gets a reward for this act and Allah increases the bond of love between them. So when we love each other for the sake of Allah WE ACTUALLY INCREASE OUR FAITH.
Forgiving: When the Prophet Muhammad asked his Companions ‘do you wish that Allah should forgive you’ they said, of course O Prophet of Allah. He responded, ‘then forgive each other’.
One of the main components of a happy marriage is that the spouses are able to forgive, that they do not hold grudges or act judgmental towards each other. It is expected that when we live with someone, situations may arise when we end up saying or doing things that hurt our spouses. The challenge is not to dwell on it or lay blame but to move past it. This can only happen if we are not too proud to ask for forgiveness and we are not stingy to forgive.
If we expect Allah to forgive us than we must learn to forgive.
Forget: When we constantly remind our spouses of all the times they let us down or hurt us we have not truly forgiven. Things that happened in the past must be left there and not be used as fresh ammunition in new situations. Couples who use this technique usually fall in a rut and become victims of their own pettiness, unable to break free.
Forbearance: Sabr (patience) is the most useful tool to have in managing a healthy lifestyle. Being patient and forbearing puts us in a proactive frame of mind it brings us closer to Allah through Tawakul and reliance .We develop an inner mechanism that empowers us to handle life’s difficult moments. As Allah states in Surah al-Asr: "Surely by time humans are at loss, except those who believe and do righteous deeds and counsel each other to the truth and counsel each other to Sabr’ (Quran, chapter 103).
Flexible: Many couples unnecessarily make themselves miserable because they are unwilling to bend a little.
We should not expect our spouses to be our extensions. They are their own selves with personalities, likes and dislikes. We must respect their right to be them selves as long as it does not compromise their Deen (religion). Being inflexible and not accommodating for individual differences leads to a very stressful and tense home atmosphere.
Friendship: This aspect of marriage has three components.
First is to develop a friendship with our spouses. The relationship based on friendship is more able to withstand outside pressures.
We honor, trust, respect, accept and care for our friends, in spite of our differences. These are the aspects of friendship we should bring to our marriages.
Unfortunately the only aspect that people think of bringing to their marriage which is highly inappropriate is the buddy scenario. Shariah (Islamic law) has placed the husband in a leadership role within a family. This requires a certain decorum, which cannot be maintained if the spouses consider each other as pals.
This should not be taken to mean that husband is a dictator but a shepherd who is responsible for and to his flock. This is a position of grave responsibility and places an enormous burden on the husband. Further more the children need to see their parents as friends but not as pals as this encourages disrespect.
Friendly: Second aspect of friendship is to have friendly relations with in-laws. When couples compete as to whose parents are more important it becomes a constant source of grief. Much valuable time is wasted trying to convince, one another of whose parents are most desirable. It is better if we accept, that our spouses will not overnight fall in love with our parents just because we want them to. As long as they maintain friendly relations that are cordial and based on mutual respect we should not force the issue.
Friends: The third aspect of friendship is our circle of friends. It is okay to have individual friends of the same gender but couples must also make effort to have family friends so that they can socialize together. If there is friction being caused by a certain friendship it must not be pursued at the expense of the marriage. Prophet Muhammad advised us to choose God fearing people as friends since we tend to follow their way. Friends should be a source of joy and not mischief.
Fun: Couples that do not laugh together have to work on sharing some fun times. The Prophet was known to play with his wives. A simple walk in the park can add much spark to the relationship. Taking up a sport together or watching clean funny movies is another way of sharing a laugh.
Faithful: It is commanded by Allah that we be faithful to our spouses. Adultery is a capital crime in Islam that is punishable by death. However there are various forms of unfaithful behavior prevalent among some Muslims.
The most common form is maintaining friendships with the opposite sex over the boundaries set by Islam, and the misgivings of the spouse. The latest trend of Internet relationships is also contrary to Islamic Adab (etiquette) and is causing serious problems between couples. Once a sense of betrayal sets in, repairing that relationship is difficult.
Another form of not being faithful is when couples betray confidences. This is a trust issue and one when compromised eats away at the heart of a marriage.
Fair: Usually when we are angry or displeased the tendency is to not play fair. We try to convince ourselves that since we have been wronged it is okay to be unjust in our behavior and our statements. Allah states in the Quran do not be unjust under any circumstances, even if they be your enemy, and here we are talking about our life partners and the parent of our children. To use words such as "never" and "always" when describing the behavior of the partner is unfair and puts the other on the defensive.
Finance: One of the most common points of contention in marriages is money. Experts tell us that 80 percent of marital conflicts are about money.
It is therefore highly recommended that the couple put serious time and effort in developing a financial management plan that is mutually agreeable and is reviewed every six months or so. Preparing a budget together is also a helpful and wise way to handling household finances. It should be remembered that the wife’s money in Islam is hers to do with as she pleases and therefore should not be considered family income unless she chooses to contribute it to the family
Family: Parenting can be a stressful experience if the parents are not well informed. This in turn can put extra pressure on the marriage.
Sometimes couples are naive about the changes that come in the lifestyle. This can cause in some cases depression and in some resentment and misunderstandings. One golden rule that must always be the guide is; that family comes first.
Whenever there is evidence that the family is not happy or not our first priority it is time to assemble at the kitchen table and discuss with open hearts and mind. Couples who have elderly parents have an added responsibility to take care of them. This can also be very stressful if the couple is not prepared.
A care plan must be worked out with respective siblings and parents as to who will be the primary care giver and what type of support network they will have. In case of mental incompetence a power of attorney must be in place. The making of a will is most essential .
Feelings: Prophet Muhammad stated that Allah forgives all sins if we repent but not those we have committed against others i.e. hurt their feelings unless the person we have hurt forgives first.
Couples are sometimes very careless when it comes to their spouse’s feelings, they take them for granted and assume that the other knows what they mean. It is surprising that people are more sensitive and courteous to strangers than they are to their loved ones. One must be ever vigilant and careful that they do not hurt the feelings of their spouses and if they invariably do, they should apologize as soon as possible. Since one does not know when someone they love will leave this world, is it not better to make amends when we have the time?
Freedom: Marriage in Islam is a partnership and not bondage or slavery. To consider the wife one’s property is alien to Islamic concept of husband and wife role. The team spirit is enhanced and not curtailed when members of the team are free to be themselves. Freedom in the common western since is to be free to do as one pleases or to be selfish. On the contrary, to allow freedom to one’s spouse is to be considerate of their needs and to recognize their limitations.
Flirtation: A sure way to keep romance in marriage is to flirt with your spouse. Many successful marriages have maintained a youthful demeanor in their marriages by adopting special names for each other and secret communication styles.
Frank: Misunderstandings happen when couples are not honest with each other. Marital relationship is where the partners must feel safe to speak their mind with due consideration to the other’s feeling, without compromising their own views. When the communication is not frank it hinders in the development of closeness and deep understanding of each other’s inner self.
Facilitator: When choosing our life partner, we must, as the Prophet advised, look for a pious Muslim. The reason is that their first and foremost goal is the pleasure of Allah. This commitment to Allah makes them an excellent facilitator for enhancing their partner’s spiritual development. In essence, the couple facilitates their family’s commitment to Allah and His Deen.
Flattering: Paying compliments and indulging in honest flattery is a very inexpensive way to win your spouse’s heart. Everyone likes to be appreciated and noticed. So being stingy about compliments is actually depriving oneself of being appreciated in return.
Fulfilling: To be all one can be to one’s spouse is a very fulfilling and rewarding experience. To be in love means to give one’s all. The heart does not put conditions or make stipulations. It gives without expecting anything in return, but such selfless giving is always rewarded tenfold.
Fallible: It often happens that our expectations sometimes are so high that we lose focus of the fact that we are fallible beings. When couples start to nitpick and demand the impossible they must remind themselves that only Allah is perfect.
Fondness: So many times couples fail to work on developing fondness for each other by [failing] to see their spouses as people through the eyes of their respective friends. Spending quality time alone doing and sharing activities are ways in which one can develop fondness.
Future: Smart couples plan for their future together. They work on their financial and retirement plans, make wills and discuss these plans with their children. This provides peace of mind and secures the relationship.
Source: Sound Vision
www.soundvision.com
Faith: The most basic and essential attribute of a Muslim marriage is the common faith that binds the couple.
Since Islam is a way of life and not just a religion confined to weekly worship it becomes an integral part of a Muslim’s life. The frame of reference shared by the couple eases communication and sharing of values which is not possible in an interfaith marriage. It is highly recommended that faith play an important role in the developing a loving relationship.
For example, as the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) said, that when a husband feeds his wife, he gets a reward for this act and Allah increases the bond of love between them. So when we love each other for the sake of Allah WE ACTUALLY INCREASE OUR FAITH.
Forgiving: When the Prophet Muhammad asked his Companions ‘do you wish that Allah should forgive you’ they said, of course O Prophet of Allah. He responded, ‘then forgive each other’.
One of the main components of a happy marriage is that the spouses are able to forgive, that they do not hold grudges or act judgmental towards each other. It is expected that when we live with someone, situations may arise when we end up saying or doing things that hurt our spouses. The challenge is not to dwell on it or lay blame but to move past it. This can only happen if we are not too proud to ask for forgiveness and we are not stingy to forgive.
If we expect Allah to forgive us than we must learn to forgive.
Forget: When we constantly remind our spouses of all the times they let us down or hurt us we have not truly forgiven. Things that happened in the past must be left there and not be used as fresh ammunition in new situations. Couples who use this technique usually fall in a rut and become victims of their own pettiness, unable to break free.
Forbearance: Sabr (patience) is the most useful tool to have in managing a healthy lifestyle. Being patient and forbearing puts us in a proactive frame of mind it brings us closer to Allah through Tawakul and reliance .We develop an inner mechanism that empowers us to handle life’s difficult moments. As Allah states in Surah al-Asr: "Surely by time humans are at loss, except those who believe and do righteous deeds and counsel each other to the truth and counsel each other to Sabr’ (Quran, chapter 103).
Flexible: Many couples unnecessarily make themselves miserable because they are unwilling to bend a little.
We should not expect our spouses to be our extensions. They are their own selves with personalities, likes and dislikes. We must respect their right to be them selves as long as it does not compromise their Deen (religion). Being inflexible and not accommodating for individual differences leads to a very stressful and tense home atmosphere.
Friendship: This aspect of marriage has three components.
First is to develop a friendship with our spouses. The relationship based on friendship is more able to withstand outside pressures.
We honor, trust, respect, accept and care for our friends, in spite of our differences. These are the aspects of friendship we should bring to our marriages.
Unfortunately the only aspect that people think of bringing to their marriage which is highly inappropriate is the buddy scenario. Shariah (Islamic law) has placed the husband in a leadership role within a family. This requires a certain decorum, which cannot be maintained if the spouses consider each other as pals.
This should not be taken to mean that husband is a dictator but a shepherd who is responsible for and to his flock. This is a position of grave responsibility and places an enormous burden on the husband. Further more the children need to see their parents as friends but not as pals as this encourages disrespect.
Friendly: Second aspect of friendship is to have friendly relations with in-laws. When couples compete as to whose parents are more important it becomes a constant source of grief. Much valuable time is wasted trying to convince, one another of whose parents are most desirable. It is better if we accept, that our spouses will not overnight fall in love with our parents just because we want them to. As long as they maintain friendly relations that are cordial and based on mutual respect we should not force the issue.
Friends: The third aspect of friendship is our circle of friends. It is okay to have individual friends of the same gender but couples must also make effort to have family friends so that they can socialize together. If there is friction being caused by a certain friendship it must not be pursued at the expense of the marriage. Prophet Muhammad advised us to choose God fearing people as friends since we tend to follow their way. Friends should be a source of joy and not mischief.
Fun: Couples that do not laugh together have to work on sharing some fun times. The Prophet was known to play with his wives. A simple walk in the park can add much spark to the relationship. Taking up a sport together or watching clean funny movies is another way of sharing a laugh.
Faithful: It is commanded by Allah that we be faithful to our spouses. Adultery is a capital crime in Islam that is punishable by death. However there are various forms of unfaithful behavior prevalent among some Muslims.
The most common form is maintaining friendships with the opposite sex over the boundaries set by Islam, and the misgivings of the spouse. The latest trend of Internet relationships is also contrary to Islamic Adab (etiquette) and is causing serious problems between couples. Once a sense of betrayal sets in, repairing that relationship is difficult.
Another form of not being faithful is when couples betray confidences. This is a trust issue and one when compromised eats away at the heart of a marriage.
Fair: Usually when we are angry or displeased the tendency is to not play fair. We try to convince ourselves that since we have been wronged it is okay to be unjust in our behavior and our statements. Allah states in the Quran do not be unjust under any circumstances, even if they be your enemy, and here we are talking about our life partners and the parent of our children. To use words such as "never" and "always" when describing the behavior of the partner is unfair and puts the other on the defensive.
Finance: One of the most common points of contention in marriages is money. Experts tell us that 80 percent of marital conflicts are about money.
It is therefore highly recommended that the couple put serious time and effort in developing a financial management plan that is mutually agreeable and is reviewed every six months or so. Preparing a budget together is also a helpful and wise way to handling household finances. It should be remembered that the wife’s money in Islam is hers to do with as she pleases and therefore should not be considered family income unless she chooses to contribute it to the family
Family: Parenting can be a stressful experience if the parents are not well informed. This in turn can put extra pressure on the marriage.
Sometimes couples are naive about the changes that come in the lifestyle. This can cause in some cases depression and in some resentment and misunderstandings. One golden rule that must always be the guide is; that family comes first.
Whenever there is evidence that the family is not happy or not our first priority it is time to assemble at the kitchen table and discuss with open hearts and mind. Couples who have elderly parents have an added responsibility to take care of them. This can also be very stressful if the couple is not prepared.
A care plan must be worked out with respective siblings and parents as to who will be the primary care giver and what type of support network they will have. In case of mental incompetence a power of attorney must be in place. The making of a will is most essential .
Feelings: Prophet Muhammad stated that Allah forgives all sins if we repent but not those we have committed against others i.e. hurt their feelings unless the person we have hurt forgives first.
Couples are sometimes very careless when it comes to their spouse’s feelings, they take them for granted and assume that the other knows what they mean. It is surprising that people are more sensitive and courteous to strangers than they are to their loved ones. One must be ever vigilant and careful that they do not hurt the feelings of their spouses and if they invariably do, they should apologize as soon as possible. Since one does not know when someone they love will leave this world, is it not better to make amends when we have the time?
Freedom: Marriage in Islam is a partnership and not bondage or slavery. To consider the wife one’s property is alien to Islamic concept of husband and wife role. The team spirit is enhanced and not curtailed when members of the team are free to be themselves. Freedom in the common western since is to be free to do as one pleases or to be selfish. On the contrary, to allow freedom to one’s spouse is to be considerate of their needs and to recognize their limitations.
Flirtation: A sure way to keep romance in marriage is to flirt with your spouse. Many successful marriages have maintained a youthful demeanor in their marriages by adopting special names for each other and secret communication styles.
Frank: Misunderstandings happen when couples are not honest with each other. Marital relationship is where the partners must feel safe to speak their mind with due consideration to the other’s feeling, without compromising their own views. When the communication is not frank it hinders in the development of closeness and deep understanding of each other’s inner self.
Facilitator: When choosing our life partner, we must, as the Prophet advised, look for a pious Muslim. The reason is that their first and foremost goal is the pleasure of Allah. This commitment to Allah makes them an excellent facilitator for enhancing their partner’s spiritual development. In essence, the couple facilitates their family’s commitment to Allah and His Deen.
Flattering: Paying compliments and indulging in honest flattery is a very inexpensive way to win your spouse’s heart. Everyone likes to be appreciated and noticed. So being stingy about compliments is actually depriving oneself of being appreciated in return.
Fulfilling: To be all one can be to one’s spouse is a very fulfilling and rewarding experience. To be in love means to give one’s all. The heart does not put conditions or make stipulations. It gives without expecting anything in return, but such selfless giving is always rewarded tenfold.
Fallible: It often happens that our expectations sometimes are so high that we lose focus of the fact that we are fallible beings. When couples start to nitpick and demand the impossible they must remind themselves that only Allah is perfect.
Fondness: So many times couples fail to work on developing fondness for each other by [failing] to see their spouses as people through the eyes of their respective friends. Spending quality time alone doing and sharing activities are ways in which one can develop fondness.
Future: Smart couples plan for their future together. They work on their financial and retirement plans, make wills and discuss these plans with their children. This provides peace of mind and secures the relationship.
Source: Sound Vision
www.soundvision.com
Causes of Nushooz That Can Be Traced Back to the Husband
Marital Discord [al-Nushooz], Its Definition, Cases, Causes, Means of Protection From It, and Its Remedy From the Quran and Sunnah
Author: Dr. Saalih ibn Ghaanim al-Sadlaan
Translated by Jamaal al-Din M. Zarabozo, © S. Al-Sadlaan and J. Zarabozo
The husband himself may be the cause of the woman’s disobedience and rebelliousness. For example, he may be very stingy and miserly. He may also be very emotional and excitable. He may also be someone who is very harsh, tough and despotic. He may be one who forces his will and decisions upon his wife in every matter without consulting with her, not taking into consideration her feelings, nor exchanging views on the matter and not being pleasant with his wife. He might consider his wife like some kind of chattel [instead of another human] and therefore deals with her with coldness and coarseness without any compassion or gentleness.
[Translator’s Footnote: A disease that seems to afflict many men in their ability to be very kind and brotherly to their brothers but extremely cold and harsh towards their own wives. Obviously, their wives have more rights upon them than any of their brothers in Islam. This mistaken behavior must be corrected.]
The cause for that may also be in his evil friends who sow discontent and evil between a man and his wife by leading him and pushing him to disliking and hating his wife and wishing to be free from her.
"[In fact,] (his extreme good nature beyond normal limits) may also lead to his wife to change her disposition and make her try to override him and then disobey his commands and elevate herself above him." [Majallah al-Jundi al-Muslim, p. 29, fn.1.]
"He may cause his wife different forms of harm, such as cursing her or her family, reviling her, verbally abusing her for the tiniest of reasons. He may insult her because of her family, if it is less prestigious or honorable than his. Or [another act of nushooz on his part is that] he may try to bring harm to her by divorcing her and then, before the waiting period is finished, bring her back as his wife and then divorce her again. All this is done without the intention of returning to a real married life but simply to harm her and transgress her rights. Or he may avoid having sexual intercourse with her for no reason or legal sanction. This may lead the woman to lose her chastity and doing something forbidden." [Al-Bahuti al-Hanbali, Kishaaf al-Qinaa’ an Matn al-Iqnaa’, vol. 5, pp. 184, 290, 213; Ibn Abideen, Radd al-Mukhtar ala al-Darr al-Mukhtar wa Hashiyah, vol. 3, p. 190; Tafseer al-Manaar, vol. 5, p. 76.]
Shaikh al-Islam ibn Taimiya stated, "The harm that comes about to the woman by the man avoiding sexual intercourse with her is such that the marriage may be dissolved under every circumstance, regardless if it was intentional from the husband or unintentional, or if he had the ability to perform sexual intercourse or not." [Ibn Taimiyah, al-Fatawa al-Kubra, vol. 4, p. 562; Ibn Taimiyah, Majmuah al-Fatawa, vol. 32, p. 40.]
Nushooz on the part of the husband includes when he orders her to do something forbidden or illegal, such as going out in public displaying her beauty or uncovering parts of her that must be covered, to go among men she is not related to, to drink alcohol or take drugs, go to clubs and salons wherein bad things are taking place.
Also from nushooz on the part of the husband is his not fulfilling his marital obligations. For example, he makes life difficult for her with respect to her food, drink, clothing and so forth. [Translator’s footnote: This is one of the biggest marital problems that one can see occurring in the West. Many times, the husbands simply do not support their wives and families. Although they have the physical and other means to work and support their families, they would resort to putting themselves and their families on the welfare system. Often times, the husbands will give the flimsiest excuses for not accepting work and therefore put families in such situations.
Many times, the husband would rather force his wife to go out and work – which, in the West, almost always involves putting the Muslim woman into situations that she should not be put into – rather than he accept a job that he is not completely pleased with. Hence, their families do not achieve the economic well-being that they deserve and, often, the wife loses respect for the husband as he is not performing one of his most important obligations of married life: providing maintenance for his wife and family. Sooner or later this often leads to many other problems within the marriage, although the root of those problems is the husband’s unwillingness to work and sustain the family.] Or he makes her live in a residence that is not something suitable for her.
In addition, included among the acts of nushooz is his unfair distribution of his time or where he stays [when he is married to more than one wife] without legal justification. Or, he may not fulfill the needs of his wife and children such that their well-being is not met. Or, he does things that hurt and dishonor his wife and show lack of respect for her, such as backbiting, slandering her or joking about her. Or, he may be desirous of her wealth and forces her to spend it on his behalf.
The following are also acts that constitute nushooz on the part of the husband: having anal intercourse with her, which is forbidden and is never permissible, his travelling for fun, amusement and entertainment without taking her permission as he is thereby wasting ample wealth for a useless purpose, while that wealth is meant to sustain the rights of his household.
If the man apostates from Islam – and refuge is sought in Allah – that is considered nushooz and the marriage contract is dissolved unless he returns to Islam. [See al-Khalafaat al-Zaujiyah, p. 39.]
There are many other causes or acts of nushooz that we have not mentioned here in order not to overly lengthen the discussion.
http://www.islaam.com/articles/nushooz_husband.htm
Author: Dr. Saalih ibn Ghaanim al-Sadlaan
Translated by Jamaal al-Din M. Zarabozo, © S. Al-Sadlaan and J. Zarabozo
The husband himself may be the cause of the woman’s disobedience and rebelliousness. For example, he may be very stingy and miserly. He may also be very emotional and excitable. He may also be someone who is very harsh, tough and despotic. He may be one who forces his will and decisions upon his wife in every matter without consulting with her, not taking into consideration her feelings, nor exchanging views on the matter and not being pleasant with his wife. He might consider his wife like some kind of chattel [instead of another human] and therefore deals with her with coldness and coarseness without any compassion or gentleness.
[Translator’s Footnote: A disease that seems to afflict many men in their ability to be very kind and brotherly to their brothers but extremely cold and harsh towards their own wives. Obviously, their wives have more rights upon them than any of their brothers in Islam. This mistaken behavior must be corrected.]
The cause for that may also be in his evil friends who sow discontent and evil between a man and his wife by leading him and pushing him to disliking and hating his wife and wishing to be free from her.
"[In fact,] (his extreme good nature beyond normal limits) may also lead to his wife to change her disposition and make her try to override him and then disobey his commands and elevate herself above him." [Majallah al-Jundi al-Muslim, p. 29, fn.1.]
"He may cause his wife different forms of harm, such as cursing her or her family, reviling her, verbally abusing her for the tiniest of reasons. He may insult her because of her family, if it is less prestigious or honorable than his. Or [another act of nushooz on his part is that] he may try to bring harm to her by divorcing her and then, before the waiting period is finished, bring her back as his wife and then divorce her again. All this is done without the intention of returning to a real married life but simply to harm her and transgress her rights. Or he may avoid having sexual intercourse with her for no reason or legal sanction. This may lead the woman to lose her chastity and doing something forbidden." [Al-Bahuti al-Hanbali, Kishaaf al-Qinaa’ an Matn al-Iqnaa’, vol. 5, pp. 184, 290, 213; Ibn Abideen, Radd al-Mukhtar ala al-Darr al-Mukhtar wa Hashiyah, vol. 3, p. 190; Tafseer al-Manaar, vol. 5, p. 76.]
Shaikh al-Islam ibn Taimiya stated, "The harm that comes about to the woman by the man avoiding sexual intercourse with her is such that the marriage may be dissolved under every circumstance, regardless if it was intentional from the husband or unintentional, or if he had the ability to perform sexual intercourse or not." [Ibn Taimiyah, al-Fatawa al-Kubra, vol. 4, p. 562; Ibn Taimiyah, Majmuah al-Fatawa, vol. 32, p. 40.]
Nushooz on the part of the husband includes when he orders her to do something forbidden or illegal, such as going out in public displaying her beauty or uncovering parts of her that must be covered, to go among men she is not related to, to drink alcohol or take drugs, go to clubs and salons wherein bad things are taking place.
Also from nushooz on the part of the husband is his not fulfilling his marital obligations. For example, he makes life difficult for her with respect to her food, drink, clothing and so forth. [Translator’s footnote: This is one of the biggest marital problems that one can see occurring in the West. Many times, the husbands simply do not support their wives and families. Although they have the physical and other means to work and support their families, they would resort to putting themselves and their families on the welfare system. Often times, the husbands will give the flimsiest excuses for not accepting work and therefore put families in such situations.
Many times, the husband would rather force his wife to go out and work – which, in the West, almost always involves putting the Muslim woman into situations that she should not be put into – rather than he accept a job that he is not completely pleased with. Hence, their families do not achieve the economic well-being that they deserve and, often, the wife loses respect for the husband as he is not performing one of his most important obligations of married life: providing maintenance for his wife and family. Sooner or later this often leads to many other problems within the marriage, although the root of those problems is the husband’s unwillingness to work and sustain the family.] Or he makes her live in a residence that is not something suitable for her.
In addition, included among the acts of nushooz is his unfair distribution of his time or where he stays [when he is married to more than one wife] without legal justification. Or, he may not fulfill the needs of his wife and children such that their well-being is not met. Or, he does things that hurt and dishonor his wife and show lack of respect for her, such as backbiting, slandering her or joking about her. Or, he may be desirous of her wealth and forces her to spend it on his behalf.
The following are also acts that constitute nushooz on the part of the husband: having anal intercourse with her, which is forbidden and is never permissible, his travelling for fun, amusement and entertainment without taking her permission as he is thereby wasting ample wealth for a useless purpose, while that wealth is meant to sustain the rights of his household.
If the man apostates from Islam – and refuge is sought in Allah – that is considered nushooz and the marriage contract is dissolved unless he returns to Islam. [See al-Khalafaat al-Zaujiyah, p. 39.]
There are many other causes or acts of nushooz that we have not mentioned here in order not to overly lengthen the discussion.
http://www.islaam.com/articles/nushooz_husband.htm
Dying and Death: Islamic View
Author: Sedki Riad PhD
To talk about dying and death in Islam, one first has to understand what Islam is about. The following is a brief introduction to this religion. References are given at the end for further reading on the subject.
What is Islam?
The word Islam is an Arabic word that carries a load of meanings. The main two are submission and peace. Submission: Total submission to and acceptance of the One and Only God (Allah) and His will. Peace: Inner peace (peace with oneself), peace with the Creator, as well as peace with all creations. It is through the total submission to the will of God that one reaches this form of peace. A Muslim is a person who believes in Allah as the One and Only God and in Muhammad as his last Prophet and Messenger.
The word Islam is an Arabic word that carries a load of meanings. The main two are submission and peace. Submission: Total submission to and acceptance of the One and Only God (Allah) and His will. Peace: Inner peace (peace with oneself), peace with the Creator, as well as peace with all creations. It is through the total submission to the will of God that one reaches this form of peace. A Muslim is a person who believes in Allah as the One and Only God and in Muhammad as his last Prophet and Messenger.
Relationship between God and Human:
The human, like all of Allah's creations, is in a state of total submission (Islam) to the will of Allah. The difference between humans and other creations, however, is that we have been given the ability to choose. When our minds submit to Allah, then we would have completely submitted to Allah, and we would be referred to as "Muslims." At this level of total and complete submission, the relationship between Allah and the human is one of a complete peace. It is an Islamic characteristic to have complete obedience to Allah and acceptance of His will and commands. It is also an Islamic characteristic to acquire a unique feeling of satisfaction, fulfillment, and content as a result of this obedience and acceptance.
The human, like all of Allah's creations, is in a state of total submission (Islam) to the will of Allah. The difference between humans and other creations, however, is that we have been given the ability to choose. When our minds submit to Allah, then we would have completely submitted to Allah, and we would be referred to as "Muslims." At this level of total and complete submission, the relationship between Allah and the human is one of a complete peace. It is an Islamic characteristic to have complete obedience to Allah and acceptance of His will and commands. It is also an Islamic characteristic to acquire a unique feeling of satisfaction, fulfillment, and content as a result of this obedience and acceptance.
The relationship between Allah and us humans in Islam is a direct one, with no mediators. In this direct relationship, we recognize that there is no other party that can help, give, take, support, provide, or grant forgiveness but Allah. In such a direct relationship, we do not associate any other deities with Allah. Moreover, our faith and submission to Allah become complete and pure.
Islam teaches that all humans are born sinless. We are only responsible for the sins we commit intentionally. Recognizing our human nature, Allah the Most Merciful, accepts our sincere repentance and forgives our sins. Islam also teaches that true belief and righteous deeds are two key elements for one to attain Allah's pleasure and satisfaction. It takes both elements to establish healthy individuals and healthy societies.
It is a fundamental Islamic belief that we were created to serve (worship) Allah. Allah has entrusted us with the great responsibility of being His deputies and representatives on this earth. As He entrusted us with our lives, our physical beings, our wealth, and our families, He also entrusted us with our communities, our environment, and our earth. It is our responsibility to care for and maintain that trust. Carrying on this responsibility is part of serving and worshipping Allah. It the sincerity of the Muslim's worship that gives it its effectiveness and usefulness. Islam teaches us to worship Allah as if we were able to see Him, since although we do not see Him, He sees us.
Muslims believe the life on this earth is only a transition period that precedes the latter life. Winning the latter life is the goal of every Muslim. This is achieved through gaining Allah's satisfaction through believing in Him and following His commands and prescriptions. The reward for those who gain Allah's satisfaction and forgiveness is Heaven, and that for those who strayed is Hell. Muslims are advised by Prophet Muhammad to work for this life as if we are living forever, and work for the latter life as if we are dying tomorrow. This saying highlights the balance that Muslims are to work towards achieving in their life on earth.
Islam is a Way of Life:
Islam is a religion for both the individuals and the communities (including that of the whole world). The teachings of Islam do not separate religion from human affairs. Politics, economics, law, and all other aspects of human affairs are integrated into one system of worship to Allah. Islam provides both the individual and the state with a comprehensive "constitution." Through this constitution, ethics, righteousness, legitimacy, correctness, and similar fundamentals are well defined and are not left to individuals to experiment with or differ about. Having been legislated by Allah, the Creator of this world, Muslims believe that the Islamic way of life is the most suitable one for us to follow.
Islam is a religion for both the individuals and the communities (including that of the whole world). The teachings of Islam do not separate religion from human affairs. Politics, economics, law, and all other aspects of human affairs are integrated into one system of worship to Allah. Islam provides both the individual and the state with a comprehensive "constitution." Through this constitution, ethics, righteousness, legitimacy, correctness, and similar fundamentals are well defined and are not left to individuals to experiment with or differ about. Having been legislated by Allah, the Creator of this world, Muslims believe that the Islamic way of life is the most suitable one for us to follow.
In an Islamic community, the family system is very strong. Family ties and closeness are not limited to the parents and the children, they extend to include all relatives of different degrees. Neighbors and friends play an important role in the family system. People do not interfere in each other's affairs, rather, counseling and advising within the Islamic frame constitute the basis of this closeness and relationship. As a result, the whole community, even the whole nation, becomes like one big family. With such attitude the elderly, the orphans, the disabled, or the needy (if there is any) do not face starvation, homelessness, or similar forms of suffering.
When members of the family, neighbors, or friend's circle grow old, they are looked upon as valuable members whom you can turn to for advice and council. When they get sick, or they lose their ability to care for themselves, they are surrounded by a younger and more able generation who take the responsibility of care for them. Care is provided with love and courtesy as to make them feel wanted. The belief within, that it is a phase of life that we will all experience, and that each has a responsibility and a role to play, highlights the spirit of this love and courtesy. No one feels that he is burdened by this older person and his needs. On the contrary, close people often challenge their limited resources and their finite will to make sure that a terminally ill person spends his last days in peace and in satisfaction. The motive is always seeking the pleasure and satisfaction of Allah.
Islam demands that children care for their aging parents. "Your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him, and that you be kind to parents. Whether one or both of them attain old age in thy life, say not to them a word of contempt, nor repel them, but address them in terms of honor. And, out of kindness, lower to them the wing of humility, and say: My Lord, bestow on them thy Mercy even as they cherished me in childhood." This is taken from the translation of the meaning of the Holy Qur'an, 17:23-24.
Muslim's view of Life
Muslims consider themselves on a mission in this earth, and we are committed to this mission by our belief in our Creator. We have responsibilities to fulfill and we have trusts that we must maintain. One main trust that each of us has to take seriously is the commitment to life. It is our responsibility to care for life in all possible ways:
Muslims consider themselves on a mission in this earth, and we are committed to this mission by our belief in our Creator. We have responsibilities to fulfill and we have trusts that we must maintain. One main trust that each of us has to take seriously is the commitment to life. It is our responsibility to care for life in all possible ways:
- Physically by keeping our selves as well as others out of dangers, and by caring for health and fitness.
- Spiritually by maintaining our faith. Worshipping Allah sincerely is guaranteed to purify the soul and to secure spiritual tranquillity and satisfaction.
The Sacredness of Life
Islam has made human life sacred and has safeguarded its preservation. According to its teachings, aggression against human life is the second greatest sin in the sight of Allah, second only to denial of Him. The Qur'an declares, "..If anyone kills a person for any reason other than for (the killing of) a person or for sowing corruption in the land, it will be as if he had killed the whole of mankind." (5:32)
Islam has made human life sacred and has safeguarded its preservation. According to its teachings, aggression against human life is the second greatest sin in the sight of Allah, second only to denial of Him. The Qur'an declares, "..If anyone kills a person for any reason other than for (the killing of) a person or for sowing corruption in the land, it will be as if he had killed the whole of mankind." (5:32)
"It is not permissible for the Muslim to frighten his brother." The sin of murder is not limited to the murderer alone.
Each individual who participated in this crime, by deed, or by word, will be the recipient of Allah's punishment in proportion to his share in it. Even a person who happened to be at the scene of the murder will receive a share of the sin for not defending the victim.
Suicide
Whatever applies to the crime of murder likewise applies to committing suicide. Whoever take his life by any means whatsoever has unjustly taken a life which Allah has made sacred. For since he did not create himself, not even so much as a single cell of his body, the life of an individual does not belong to him; it is a trust given to him by Allah. He is not allowed to diminish it, let alone to harm or destroy it.
Whatever applies to the crime of murder likewise applies to committing suicide. Whoever take his life by any means whatsoever has unjustly taken a life which Allah has made sacred. For since he did not create himself, not even so much as a single cell of his body, the life of an individual does not belong to him; it is a trust given to him by Allah. He is not allowed to diminish it, let alone to harm or destroy it.
The Islamic teachings require the Muslim to be resolute in facing hardships; he is not permitted to give up and to run away from the hardships of life when a tragedy befalls or some of his hopes are dashed. Indeed, the believer is created for striving, not for sitting idle; for combat, not for escape. His faith and character do not permit him to run away from the battlefield of life, and he possesses a weapon that never fails and ammunition that is never exhausted: the weapon of his unshakable faith and the ammunition of his moral steadfastness.
Our duration here on this earth is not for us to determine or control. A Muslim believes that he has no right neither does he have the power to determine his nor any body else's time to die. Our lives belong to the creator, and we can neither shorten it nor prolong it. Although it might appear that a person committing suicide is ending his own life or that a rescue squad or a medical treatment has prolonged a person's life, it is a basic Islamic belief that a person's life ends only when Allah decides for it to end.
Can we end the suffering..?
A controversial discussion is taking place nowadays in this and other countries of the world related to the right of individuals to end a life under certain circumstances. This is a critical issue in particular in our days with many cases of terminally ill individuals where the person, his family, or the doctor need to take a decision related to medical treatments and when to "pull the plug." In Islam, this controversy is looked upon in the light of three basic criteria:
A controversial discussion is taking place nowadays in this and other countries of the world related to the right of individuals to end a life under certain circumstances. This is a critical issue in particular in our days with many cases of terminally ill individuals where the person, his family, or the doctor need to take a decision related to medical treatments and when to "pull the plug." In Islam, this controversy is looked upon in the light of three basic criteria:
- We must do our best to maintain the trust given to us by Allah as he gave us life. We must do our best to maintain life.
- Doing our best in maintaining life is within the limits of knowledge and financial resources.
- We have to ensure that whatever we do does not introduce unbearable pain or suffering to the human in consideration.
In other words, if an affordable medical treatment is available, it must be administered to the patient provided it does not expose the patient to unusual pains and suffering. On the other hand, using devices or drugs aimed at ending a person's life is not allowed in Islam no matter how much is the illness or the suffering.
Emotional factors should not be used in making the treatment decision since belief in the Will and Mercy of Allah should provide the patient, his family, and his friends with the needed support. Muslims look upon such hardships as tests from Allah. Patience, persistence, and hope in Allah's Mercy not only are prescribed for the patient and his family and friends but also are better rewarded by Allah.
Treatment decisions are typically discussed between the doctor and the immediate family members. The doctor is trusted to have the scientific medical knowledge. An Islamic rule which is relevant to state here is that as long as the efforts are sincere and the intentions are to abide by the Islamic rules and follow the commands of Allah, no one is held responsible for the results. No one is asked to do things beyond his true means and his true abilities.
In summary, knowing that every single one will die when Allah wills him to die, we all are asked to only do our best, within the Islamic regulations, in whatever treatment decisions we take.
Death:
When death approaches, the close family and friends try to support and comfort the dying person through supplication as well as remembrance of Allah and His will. The attendance is to help the dying person to iterate his commitment to unity of God.
When death approaches, the close family and friends try to support and comfort the dying person through supplication as well as remembrance of Allah and His will. The attendance is to help the dying person to iterate his commitment to unity of God.
Upon death, the eye lids are to be closed, the body should be covered, and preparation for burial takes place as soon as possible. The whole body is washed and wrapped in a shroud. Muslims gather and a prayer is performed for the dead. The body is to buried soon after the prayer. The wrapped body is to be laid directly at the bottom of the dug grave. The body is to be laid on its right side facing the direction of Makkah. A ceiling is attached to the grave and then covered with dirt. The grave is to be marked by raising its top level of dirt above surrounding grounds. A stone may be used to mark its location, but no writings are allowed. Buildings or other forms of structures are not allowed on top of the grave.
The family of the dead has a responsibility to fulfill any debts he had as soon as possible. They have the commitment to maintain contacts and courteous relationships with close relatives and close friends. They frequently pray and supplicate for him. Charity, fasting, prayers, and pilgrimage is often performed on behalf of the dead. Visiting the graves is recommended for the living to remember death and the day of judgment.
For further reading:
The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, MD, 1989. ISBN 0-915957-033-5
The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, MD, 1989. ISBN 0-915957-033-5
The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam, Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, American Trust Publications, Indianapolis, IN. ISBN 0-89259-016-5
Contact Info: Sedki Riad, c/o the Islamic Center of Blacksburg, P.O. Box 11629, Blacksburg VA 24062-1629
Email: IslamView@hotmail.com
Note: There is no COPYRIGHT on this publication.
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