Tazkîyah: Its Aim and Scope

Author: Amîn Ahsân Islâhî

Tazkîyah deals with all the apparent and hidden aspects of our selves. It critically judges all the powers and the capabilities of which we are constituted, discusses all our emotions and feelings and corrects and reforms them; it takes stock of all the variegated and multifaceted ties that we are bound with, and creates an order in and regulates them all under a particular principle and regulation. Our thoughts, our apprehensions, our inclinations, our movements, our eating and drinking, our engagements, entertainments, and interests, the daily routines of our lives, in short, no department and nothing that touches our lives is outside the pale of tazkîyah.

Tazkîyah in the Arabic language means purification of something (from adulterants), its growth and development and to bring it to the height of its perfection.

The action of tazkîyah on different things will appear in different forms on the surface. On material objects it will take one form and on abstract objects quite another. But this apparent difference will not change the reality. The spirit of purification, growth and development and its final perfection will be visible in its actions everywhere.

For instance the action of tazkîyah may be performed on a tract of land and also on the inner self of a person. Although due to variations in the fields of action, there will be a difference in the form, yet in reality and in its object there will be no difference between the two. The tazkîyah of the tract of land will comprise clearing it of the weeds, brushwood and brambles, leveling it, ploughing it to make it soft and porous, then watering it so that it may become capable of developing the healthy seeds of some sort in keeping with its natural capacity, and take it to the final stage of blossoming and fruition.

The tazkîyah of the inner self of a person involves eradication of erroneous thought and false assumptions, the correction and leveling of the perversions and angularities created by the corrupt morality and bad habits; removal of the ills produced by blind emulations and ritualism; treatment and cure of the evil of spirits and cowardice created by craving for ephemeral carnal pleasures so that his eyes may be opened and his mind may become capable of thinking freely, his drooping spirits may be raised, his habits may be reformed and through development of his mental, moral and spiritual powers according to his natural capabilities, may attain the heights God endowed him with to reach.
 
The Technical Sense of Tazkîyah
More or less the same or some such sense is conveyed by the word tazkîyah used as a technical term. Literally it means as already stated above, purification and development to the stage of its perfection. Technically it conveys the sense of checking ourselves from erroneous tendencies and leanings and turning them to the path of virtue and piety (fear of God’s displeasure) and developing it to attain the stage of perfection. This sense of tazkîyah is borne out by the following verse of the Qur’ân:
“By the soul and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment as to its wrong and its right; - truly he succeeds that purifies it and he fails that corrupts it!” (Al-Qur’ân – 91:7-10)

The above verse clarifies the issue. God has so ordered the soul that it has both  inclinations – good and evil, and man has been endowed with the power of distinction between the two; and the path of prosperity for man lies in choosing the side of the good in the struggle between it and the evil, and striving to make it prevail over the evil.

With rightly guided consciousness the extreme struggle to make the good prevail and to vanquish the evil is tazkîyah in the Qur’ânic sense of the term.
 
The Scope of the Knowledge of Tazkîyah
With the sense of tazkîyah in view if we were to contemplate over it we must come to the conclusion that all of the arts and sciences dealing directly with our inner selves, medical science is the only one resembling the knowledge of tazkîyah. Medical science deals with the ailment of our physique and the treatment and cure thereof, whereas tazkîyah treats the subject of the ailments of the spirit and their eradication. But in spite of this resemblance there is also a great difference between the two. The ambit of the discussions of the medical science is very limited, dealing with only one aspect of our selves, the body and its ailments. On the contrary tazkîyah deals with all the apparent and hidden aspects of our selves. It critically judges all the powers and the capabilities of which we are constituted, discusses all our emotions and feelings and corrects and reforms them; it takes stock of all the variegated and multifaceted ties that we are bound with, and creates an order in and regulates them all under a particular principle and regulation. Our thoughts, our apprehensions, our inclinations, our movements, our eating and drinking, our engagements, entertainments, and interests, the daily routines of our lives, in short, no department and nothing that touches our lives is outside the pale of tazkîyah.
 
The Real Task of Tazkîyah
And it is not only that tazkîyah deals with all the aspects of ourselves or removing their evils, presents the right sort of replacements, but the real job of tazkîyah lies beyond this discussion, critical study and correction. It also enters our souls from every angle in such a way that they become tranquilized and peaceful.

The tranquilization of the soul means that our knowledge may be founded on such a firm belief that no vicissitudes of distress and comfort or pain and pleasure may be able to shake and alter our trust in God and our expecting only good from Him, but that we may remain pleased with God and satisfied with His decrees. 

Similarly, the foundations of our deeds may be laid in such a firm character that no temptations, in adversity or prosperity; fear or hope, may take our feet off where the divine Sharî`ah has planted, so that we may fulfill our mission of the demands made on us by God, and thus become His desirable servants. 

Such a tranquilized soul is the aim of tazkîyah. The Qur’ân addresses the tranquilized or peaceful soul in the following words:
“O, [you] soul, in complete rest and satisfaction!  Come back you to your Lord; - well-pleased [yourself] and well-pleasing unto Him!  Enter you, then, among My devotees! Yes, enter you My Heaven.” (Al-Qur’ân – 89:27-30)
 
The Quest for Ever-increasing Superiority
The above discussion has also revealed that tazkîyah has an air of art too about it, since it does not rest contented with somehow bringing the soul to the right path, but over and above that, it strives to take it to ever-increasing heights of superiority. 

Tazkîyah does not stop at the stage where we learn a little about God and the Sharî`ah conferred by Him on man, but it is its endeavor that we may attain a true and firm knowledge of God and His attributes. 

Tazkîyah does not keep before it as its goal that our habits be reformed to a certain degree but strives after the goal of making ourselves the embodiment of all the beautiful traits of man’s character. 

Tazkîyah is not satisfied with the creation of a sort of harmony and accord in our notions, but in addition to that it aims at producing a sort of pathos, refinement and the power to effect passions or their expression. 

Tazkîyah does not demand only that our soul may somehow be subordinated to the Commandments of the Sharî`ah, but its real demand lies in breaking this unruly steed of our soul in such a way that it carries out the orders of God and His apostle in the best possible manner. It does not only demand from us the service where the slave comes to imagine that he is beholding his Lord with his eyes (physical vision). 

In short, it means that tazkîyah places before us the demand of îmân or belief, Islâm or submission and Ihsân or utmost sincerity, at the same time. It demands that we believe in God with all His attributes, also that we obey His Commandments in every sphere of our lives and above all that this belief and obedience may not be formal and superficial but fully conscious and deeply sincere in which our hearts must coordinate with our bodies.

This nature of tazkîyah makes it a perpetual striving and a continuous struggle without any break or a period of rest. In this journey there is no turn or stage which may be mistaken for the last lap of the journey – the destination where one may sojourn a while or become permanently at ease. At every stage in this striving one goes on looking for greater excellence and higher standards and nowhere his eyes can come to rest on any degree of excellence. With the greater polish of the deeds, the morals and the exterior and the inner self, the fineness of morals and the exterior and the inner self, the fineness of tastes, the degree of sensibility and keenness of eye-sight also progresses by leaps and bounds, with the result that no sooner has one washed the old stains off his raiment some more stains come in sight to be cleansed.

Because of this, tazkîyah is a very difficult task indeed. Even if a person is not bewildered by its vast scope, its never-ending activity instills fear into him that he may not be able to sustain himself through its life-long occupation. But if this activity is taken up and performed in the natural course with the gradualness and the order prescribed for it by the prophets, it becomes for a lover of the Truth the most attractive occupation, its vast scope and perpetuity notwithstanding. Its limitless vastness is awe-inspiring indeed. But the inspirational guidance that one experiences on this path is so heartening and solacious that his courage never gives way and he is never disheartened:
“And those who strive in Our [cause], - We will certainly guide them to Our Paths.” (Al-Qur’ân – 29:69).

Thus the fatigue caused by the perpetuity of the striving is countered by the ever-fresh revelations of realities and subtleties which in turn confer a refreshed life continually on man.

If with the perpetuity of striving fresh gains in the form of inspirations come his way and every fresh success surpasses all the past achievements, continuous labor and its monotony do not make him tire of it, but create in him fresh courage and resolve to begin every new stage with fresh interest and zeal. 
 
The Real Theme of Tazkîyah
The above details give an idea of the nature of tazkîyah, its scope and its difficulties to a certain extent. But to bring into view all its aspects, the suitable method will be to focus on the real theme of tazkîyah and then try to encompass all the aspects of this theme, since it must have as many facets as are to be found in the theme itself. The garments are fitted to the stature, and if we can take measurements of the stature, the measurements of the dresses are automatically determined.

Evidently enough the theme of tazkîyah is human soul. But what is soul is an important question stressed in the Islâmic philosophy and in that of Jâhilîyah too. The arch of the doorway to the temple in ancient Athens bore the inscription of the sayings of Socrates: “Man know thyself!”  This is a pointer to the fact that in Greek philosophy knowledge and cognizance of the soul was considered of fundamental importance. In our society too an old saying is well known:
“One who knows himself comes to know His Lord.”

That makes it incumbent on us to analyze this issue of the soul as to which attributes and demands go into its composition, so that we may be able to find out what will be required of us in its analysis.

By the analysis of the soul we do not mean here the process adopted by the philosophers in finding the real nature of any object. To us soul defies such analysis and enquiries to find its true nature. And it is not necessary for our purpose to find its true nature. We shall endeavor here to find our its attributes and demands and deal only with such of its mental and moral aspects which come or should come into question in the knowledge and exercise of tazkîyah. 
 
The Various Aspects of Man’s Ego
Let us now contemplate the various aspects of our ego that can be brought under the action of tazkîyah, and without that much tazkîyah of those aspects, man’s perfect development according to his natural capacities is not possible.

When we contemplate our ego, the two aspects that are directly acted upon by the process of tazkîyah are that:
1) the ego has understanding and perception.
2) the ego acts.

Perception is the essence of ego without which man is no more important than inanimate objects. Then, apparently enough, this perception is not limited to the minor details but includes that of generalities and broad facts as well. And it is this quality of our ego which distinguishes it from animals, and without which man would not have deserved any higher status than that of beasts. This perception of generalities opens up for him vast avenues of thought and reasoning, and all his arts and sciences and thought and creed and assumption come into existence with it. And it is with its help that he goes from the created to the Creator and from the handiwork to the Artisan. In its light he gets an idea of the attributes and the likes and dislikes of the Designer from the designed. And thus guided he decides the right course for himself, and also what obligations and responsibilities devolve on him as a man, and with what degree of consciousness and sense of responsibility, promptitude and wholehearted activity he should discharge his duties.

Just think how important this aspect of our ego is! I t is apparent that all other aspects of our ego are subordinate to it.  If it is corrected and reformed, the ego as a whole can be reformed.  And any evil of slightest degree persisting therein, will not allow it (the ego) to right itself.  It is man’s thought that makes him rightly guided or sends him astray. One false step and the whole philosophy of life is erased, and an ordinary slip in the deduction will bring the whole building of our knowledge toppling down. As a result of this crookedness the whole life with its various aspects becomes rife with corruption.
 
Tazkîyah of Knowledge and Perception
Due to the importance of knowledge and perception their tazkîyah carries great weight in our programme of tazkîyah. In this, priority goes to the settlement of the questions that are essential for keeping our thoughts and intentions firmly focused on the right path. For instance:
What are we?
Whence we came and wither-bound?
Whether we are the creators or the created?
Whether we are the masters with a free will or in a state of non-volition?
Whether we are free from liability or answerable to any one?
If responsible to anyone what are His attributes?
How is He related to our lives?
What He likes and what He does not like?
In case of somebody indulging in something that He does not like, how is He going to deal with him? 

Definite and decisive answers to these questions are inevitable for saving our ego from the crookedness of knowledge and mental straying. It is also imperative that the dust of blind following, inertia and stagnancy, negligence and forgetfulness should not collect on the correct answers provided to these questions. And, God forbid, if any aspect of it is getting rusty, it must be rubbed constantly and kept clean.

Tazkîyah of Action
Action, like knowledge it is also vast enough. Not a moment of man’s life passes without action, which does not leave a good or bad impression on his ego.

It is not only the question of prohibition or approbation that arises about these actions, but more important than this aspect is that of the motives behind them. There is no single motivation for man’s actions, but so many motives of different natures incite him to action, so that the same action under two different motives may become an act of virtue or that of an evil.

Then a question also arises about all the motives of our actions as to which of them is trustworthy and which otherwise. Which are those whose persuasion and incitement is acceptable and which those whose blindness is fraught with dangers?

At times, we resort to a certain act compelled by necessity or want. We are compelled to eat when hungry, slake our thirst when thirsty and rest when we feel fatigued.

Similarly so many of our actions are motivated by desires. For example, for the sake of fame we indulge in acts of valor; for popularity’s sake we engage ourselves in social service and to accumulate wealth we expand our businesses of industries and commerce.

Likewise, so many of our acts are motivated by passions. We love someone, hate someone else; are jealous of somebody and favorably disposed to another; we oblige one person and revenge ourselves on another.

Moreover, through a careful stock-taking of our ego we also come to realize that there are so many actions of ours whose motives are far above those mentioned earlier. Under this category come all those actions of judgment, thought and sacrifice and selflessness in which we cannot find a trace of selfishness even on very critical analysis. This motive we can term the angelic spirit or reason.

All the four motives mentioned at times act separately and at others are at work jointly. They are also guilty of excesses and shortcomings in their actions. That is why taking stock of them in every action and examining them and judging them in their excesses and training them to be bound by the limits prescribed for them by the Sharî`ah, is a mighty long chain, arrangement and regulation of which are also the duties of tazkîyah.
 
Tazkîyah of Relations and Dealings
After knowledge and action and passions and motives, two other aspects of our ego that come before us is that of the relations and dealings, no less in its scope, rather greater in its vastness.

Among the relations of ego the most important are those with God and with self. If we take ourselves, not as the creator but the created, a very pertinent question must arise regarding the nature of our relations with the Creator, and the way they can be established on proper bases.

Next crops up the problem of our own ego or self which apparently has so many things in its charge or holds sway over them. It has a hold over the body, the brain, various faculties and capabilities, feelings and passions. How should it deal with all of them? Is he the owner and master of these things and is entitled to use them as he is pleased to do? Or is it only this that it holds them in his charge as a trust within the limits prescribed by the Creator? If the second is the case the question arises as to the limits which must be kept in view in this connection. And along with that it will also be inevitable to know all those apparent and hidden qualities that are essential for the proper discharge of this duty of trusteeship.
Next come the relations of the ego or self with its surroundings. That man is a social entity needs no proof.  Whenever and wherever he is, it is in the capacity of the member of a family, the individual belonging to a society or the citizen of some state.  Just as a creeper needs some trusses and supports to climb up, prosper and blossom, man too must have some supports for his development, progress and attainment of the zenith of his career. In the absence of these supports his existence is not possible. And if it is rarely met with anywhere it is in a very stunted state of growth and development of his faculties. This is why tazkîyah takes stock of all these relations and firmly establishes them on the right bases, so that it may attain the zenith of its development and perfection in keeping with its natural endowments.

These details bring to light the fact that tazkîyah is not a simple and limited process. Rather, its multiple facets extend far and wide. Every aspect of our life, apparent or hidden, theoretical or practical, moral or social and political is encompassed by it. The tazkîyah of our ego does not simply mean that a certain aspect of it is lighted up but brightening and spreading light to every nook and corner of it – our knowledge becoming dazzling, our actions pure and clean and our relations and dealings established on just and proper lines…


Maintainer’s Note:
[1] This a mawdû (fabricated) hadîth as is well-known among the scholars of hadîth:
As-Sakhâwî said, “Abû al-Mudhaffar as-Sama’ânî said, ‘This is not known as a hadîth of the Messenger, rather it is only related as a saying of Yahya bin Mu‘âdh ar-Râzî. And likewise an-Nawawî said, ‘it is not established’ ” [‘al-Maqâsid al-Hasanah’ (pg. 491 no.1149)]
As-Suyûtî said, “This hadîth is not authentic.” [‘Hâwî lil Fatâwî’ (2/351)]
Alî al-Qârî quoted from Ibn Taymiyyah saying, “fabricated.” [‘al-Asrâr al-Marfû‘ah’ (pg. 83)]
Al-Allâmah Fairozabâdî said, “This is not from the Prophetic ahâdîth, despite the fact that the majority of people make it so, and it is not authentic at all. It is only related from the Jewish traditions as ‘O mankind! Know yourself and you will know your Lord.’ ” [‘ar-Radd alâ al-Mu’taridîn’ (2/37)]
Al-Albânî says, “It has no basis.” [‘Silsilah ad-Da‘îfah’ (1/165 no.66)]



Excerpt from:
"How to Attain True Piety and Righteousness in Islâm" © 1987 Islamic Book Publishers


Source: Islamic Psychology Online
     http://www.angelfire.com/al/islamicpsychology/

published in www.crescentlife.com 
 

Spiritual Abuse and the Sufi Tradition

(excerpt from e-book)
Author: Dr. Anab Whitehouse


I'm going to make three claims:

First, the e-book Spiritual Abuse and the Sufi Tradition is unique in the history of Sufi literature.

Secondly, although the contents of this book are primarily about problems associated with mystical pursuits, nonetheless, the principles which are developed therein provide a great deal of insight into problems surrounding issues of fundamentalism and terrorism, for all three exploit a dimension of human existence to which each of us is vulnerable.

Finally, you may think you understand such difficulties, but 99% of the individuals reading this sentence have little appreciation of either the problems that are explored in Spiritual Abuse and the Sufi Tradition or their implications for the lives of most Muslims -- irrespective of whether, or not, they are interested in the Sufi Path.

You may believe this book has nothing to do with you. I would contend it may have everything to do with you for it raises questions and issues which you cannot afford to avoid. But, then, of course, I want you to buy this book, so I am just trying to manipulate your emotions, aren't I? And, you know what? -- I know you don't know the answer to that question, and if you don't know the answer to that question, believe me there is a lot of other things about this book and about spiritual abuse -- far more important issues -- which you do not know either.

If those who are seeking to walk the Sufi mystical Path are not very, very careful, then, many of them are at risk of falling -- if they have not already done so -- into the same sort of moral abyss which has engulfed those individuals -- both 'leaders' and lay people -- who have spent their lives in denial with respect to the institutionalized sexual abuse which was being perpetuated within certain religious circles and, therefore, did nothing to deal with the destructive behavior which was going on all about them and destroying so many lives in the process. There is a special evil loose in the land, and it is preying on those who have a holy longing for realizing their spiritual potential and purpose in life.

These spiritual predators swim within the shadowy, murky coastal waters which flow in the channel-way leading to deeper esoteric possibilities. These denizens feed off of the vulnerable. They feed off those who are seeking one kind of truth, only to find themselves consumed by another, very different kind of truth -- a kind of truth which destroys, cripples, and traumatizes the holy longing which is the birthright of every human being.

Fraudulent shaykhs are, to be sure, not a new phenomenon. In fact, they have been in existence for nearly as long as the Sufi Path. From time to time, authentic shaykhs and travelers of the mystical way have addressed this issue, trying to provide the sort of insight, information, and understanding which might serve as warning buoys for the unsuspecting and innocent wayfarers, but, this uniquely dangerous species of human-octopus has changed its mode of camouflage in order to better blend in with the environment and go undetected, and, consequently, they have adapted to changing circumstances, much as master counterfeiters might alter their modus operandi in order to evade the steps that are taken by treasury authorities to identify and apprehend such individuals.

Some of these creatures are sexual-predators. Some are interested in money, power, and/or worldly fame. Some of them are interested in all of these things and worse.
However, there is one variety of this species which, like Satan or Iblis, is primarily interested in one thing -- namely, to mislead and misguide people in relation to the nature of the mystical path. Indeed, these 'dajjals' (imposters) are confederates of the accursed one.
Sexual improprieties, or entanglements with money, power, and fame may, or may not, be thrown into the mix in relation to these sort of spiritual charlatans, but, in any event, the central focus for such individuals swirls around the issue of gaining control over people's minds, hearts, and souls in order to compromise, undermine, corrupt, and destroy the holy longing within us.

The purpose of these purveyors of evil is to change the 'r' in 'fitra' (our primordial spiritual potential) to an 'n' so that our lives become embroiled in 'fitna' -- mischievous turmoil and conflict. This is a seemingly small change that carries enormous problematic consequences -- often with people not even understanding what is happening, or has happened, to them.
These present 'dajjals' are spreading the seeds of doubt, confusion, alienation, isolation, conflict, division, misunderstanding, and distrust which, increasingly, are tearing individuals, families, communities, and nations apart. These individuals are making it increasingly difficult for many people to discern the difference between truth and falsehood because of the manner in which the former are muddying the waters of existence through articulate, clever, and well-tested modes of misdirecton, deceit, manipulation, exploitation, trance-induction, and creative re-framing techniques.

Some people, when they discuss the issue of fraudulent shaykhs, say, in effect, we should leave such matters to Allah. Yet, if everything were meant to be left to God, human beings would not have been created in order, among other things, to be tested to see who is best in conduct. The problem, of course, is understanding what kind of conduct is warranted under different circumstances -- and, as one of Shakespeare's characters says: "aye, there's the rub."

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) has warned about the errors of the left and right, while encouraging us to seek the middle way. Acts of commission and omission are the loci of manifestation through which problems erupt into the world, but there are serious differences of opinion about what exactly these acts entail or how to locate the middle way, the sirat-ul-mustaqueem.

The Osama bin Ladens of the world say they know the middle path. The alleged leaders who induce impressionable and ignorant people to become suicide bombers claim they know what the sirat-ul-mustaqueem is all about. The narrow, intolerant, rigid, dogmatic, self-righteous, judgmental, misogynistic, proponents of 'taqlid' theology claim they are on the middle path. And, their are many individuals who assert they are speaking with the authority of tasawwuf, or the Sufi mystical way, and are willing to help one, and all, avoid the pitfalls of the left and right.

Spiritual abuse can assume many forms, but, perhaps, the most devious of all such possibilities is that which gives expression to misinformation and disinformation, for without knowledge, understanding, and wisdom, the holy longing within us is likely to remain dormant, if not become atrophied and sealed over. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: "Verily, God does not take away knowledge from the hands of Divine servants, but takes it by taking away the learned, so that when no learned people remain, the ignorant will be placed at the head of affairs. Causes will be submitted to their decision, and they will pass sentence without knowledge, and they will err themselves, and lead others into error."

We live in a modern Babel where everybody seems to be speaking a different language of spirituality. Spiritual frauds thrive in such an environment -- indeed, it is like a paradise of opportunity for them.

Spiritual Abuse and the Sufi Tradition is an attempt to warn people about many of the complex currents which flow within certain dimensions of the spiritual or mystical way. These treacherous currents are spilling over into many aspects of modern life, and there are strong resonances of spiritual abuse among terrorism, fundamentalism, many forms of education, and fraudulent shaykhs.

Like certain church leaders and parishioners, one can turn a blind eye to the evil of spiritual abuse which is going on all around us and, thereby, become one who enables evil. Or, one can begin to educate oneself about this endemic problem and try to struggle, with other like-minded and like-hearted individuals, toward a common, collective response to the evil which is stalking all of us -- especially our children.

Whether one attends to this issue or one ignores it, there is one thing which is certain. Just as there are physical laws that govern the material realm, so, too, there are principles governing the spiritual realm. When we ignore such problems, we expose ourselves to the ramifications which may arise when we fail to take heed, and/or assist others to take heed, in relation to the existence of such malignancy in the midst of our lives -- both individual and communal.

The book: Spiritual Abuse and the Sufi Tradition is as good a place, as any, through which to begin one's education concerning the issue of spiritual abuse in our communities. The aforementioned book is not just for people who are interested in the Sufi Path, nor is it just for Muslims -- it is for anyone who cares about truth and worries about the forces which exist that are seeking to eclipse that truth.

Source:  http://www.sufi-spiritual-abuse-recovery-assistance.org
Also check the FAQ section on Dr. Whitehouse's site.
  
published in www.crescentlife.com

Principles of Human Development Derivable from the Qur'ân and Hadith

In the opening chapter of the Qur’ân, the Fâtiha, God declares that He is the Lord and Cherisher of the worlds: All praises are due to Allah, Lord of the worlds. (1:2) What this means is that He is the sole creator of the universe and that He nourishes and sustains it. The implication is that He is the originator of everything (seen and unseen, known and unknown) and that everything depends on Him for sustenance, growth, and development. This interpretation is conveyed in the following verse of the Qur’ân: God is the creator of all things, and He is the guardian and disposer of all affairs. (39:62) These verses provide the background for our discussion on aspects and principles of human development in the Qur’ân, particularly cognitive development. In fact, as far as the Qur’ân is concerned, the meaning of these two verses is the fundamental principle of human development. So, God is the creator of man, and He is the sole determinant of the pattern and process of his growth and development. The following paragraphs enunciate this dominant principle in forms of sub-principles of human development. In the Islamic perspective of developmental psychology, the following principles are identifiable. Human Life (Growth and Development) Is a Gradual Process This is the first principle of development that can be derived from the Qur'ân. Having told us that He is the creator, guardian, and disposer of all things, God also told us that He created man in various progressive stages of growth and development. In other words, man's life has been patterned in stages from conception to death. The stages through which man passes in his growth and development are not merely a matter of chance or accident. They were pre-designed, predetermined, and graduated by God Himself. God mentions this basic fact in a number of verses in the Qur'ân. Examples of such verses are the following: It is He Who created all things and ordered them in due proportions. (25:2) This verse clearly spells out the fact that the life of every thing has been designed in such a way that every aspect of it is proportionately graduated. In the case of human growth and development it means that the various phases mentioned above have been duly proportioned and all humans have to pass through each stage up to old age and death. That growth and development do not take place at once but pass through the duly and proportionately designed phases is what makes them a gradual process. The following verse clearly mentions that we have been created and caused to grow in phases, not at once: What is the matter with you, that you place not your hope for kindness and long suffering in God? Seeing that it is He that has created you in diverse stages? (71:13-14) Ibn Kathir reported that Abdullah ibn Abbas (hereinafter referred to as Ibn Abbas) and others interpreted this verse to mean that man has been created from a drop of sperm, and then transformed into a clot of blood, then into a morsel of flesh, and so on. Allah says in the Qur'ân: You shall surely travel from stage to stage. (84:19) Ibn Kathir again reported that 'Ikrimah (one of the disciples of Ibn Abbas) interpreted this verse to mean that man shall grow from one condition to the other such that he becomes a toddler after being an infant, old after being young and strong. The above verses tell us in general terms that man's growth and development definitely follow certain stages. These stages are specifically spelled out in some other verses in the Qur'ân in more elaborate and particular terms. The Prophet himself enunciated and expounded them in more detail in some of his traditions. These will be seen in our subsequent discussions. It is however important to note that the phases through which growth and development pass are themselves spread over two broad stages. Human life (growth and development) has been categorized in the Qur'ân into two broad phases: the prenatal and the postnatal. Each of these phases has been subdivided into different sub-stages having different terms and periods. The following Qur'ânic verse succinctly describes the first phase of human life: He makes you in the wombs of your mothers, in stages, one after another, in three veils of darkness. Such is God, your Lord and Cherisher: to Him belongs (all) dominion. There is no god but He: then how are you turned away (from your true center)? (39:6) In another verse, the Qur'ân describes the two phases in a precise and concise manner: It is He Who created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a leech-like clot; then does He get you out (into the light) as a child; then lets you (grow and) reach your age of full strength, then lets you become old-though of you there are some who die before-and lets you reach a term appointed; in order that you may learn wisdom. (40:67) The Qur'ân has also told us that the first phase has a certain fixed and definite term within which it reaches its apex of development. Then it is terminated through birth (by delivery).  The Qur'ân says: And We cause Whom We will to rest in the wombs for an appointed term. (22:5) But in much more elaborate, precise, and detailed terms the following verse further describes these two broad stages with their respective specific phases. It reads thus: O mankind! If you are in doubt about the Resurrection, then verily, We have created you (i.e. Adam) from dust, then from a nutfah (mixed drops of male and female sexual discharges), then from a clot (a piece of thick coagulated blood) then from a little lump of flesh - partly formed and partly unformed - that We make it clear to you (i.e. to show you our Power and ability to do what We Will). And We cause whom We will to remain in the wombs for an appointed term, then We bring you out as infants, then (give you growth) that you may reach your age of full strength. And among you there is he who dies (young), and among you there is he who is brought back to the miserable old age, so that he knows nothing after having known. (22:5) The Prophet (S.A.W.) has precisely and accurately described the first broad stage with fixed time specifications stipulated for each of the phases within it. The hadith reads thus: Lo! The creation of each one of you is composed in the womb of his mother (first) as a nutfah (mixed drop of sperm and ovum) for forty days then after that he transforms to alaqah (a clot of congealed blood) for a similar term, then he transforms to mudghah (a lump of flesh), and then an Angel is sent to blow the spirit into him.18 The Qur'ân has also told us that the first broad stage (prenatal) has a certain fixed and definite term within which it reaches its apex of development. Then it is terminated through birth. Allah says: And We cause whom We will to rest in the wombs for an appointed term. (22:5) Therefore, the Qur'ân has established that the prenatal period is definite and fixed (usually 9 months under normal circumstances as enunciated in one of the Prophetic traditions) and as experienced practically in daily life. However, the Qur'ân further mentions to us that there are exceptional cases whereby the prenatal period terminates, before or after the normal term. And all these happen in accordance with God's Absolute Will and Decree.  The Qur'ân says: He it is that fashions (shapes) you in the wombs as He pleases. There is no god save He, the Exalted in Might, the Wise. (2:6) This means that the nature, form, size, and time in which individuals are created and shaped in the womb may vary according to the will and wishes of God. Because of this, He affirms that some pregnancies may be delivered before or after the normal time of delivery. But the knowledge of that (addition or reduction in time) is His exclusive preserve: God doth know what every female (womb) doth bear, by how much the wombs fall short (of their time or number) or do exceed. Every single thing is before His sight, in (due) proportion. He knoweth the unseen and that which is open: He is the Great, the Most High. (13:8-9) As for the postnatal phase of growth and development, the Qur'ân does not mention any fixed span of life that is generally applicable to all individuals; it differs from one individual to the other. That is why the Qur'ân says: And some of you are called to die (at different ages) and some are sent to the feeblest old age. (22:6) But if the postnatal period is taken in its entirety, Islamic scholars have divided it into four broad stages, and each stage is itself divided into short sub-stages. Allah says:  It is God Who creates you and takes your souls at death; and of you there are some who are sent back to a feeble age, so that they know nothing after having known much. (16:70) In his commentary on this verse, Gummi (1922-1992) says the following: Some Islamic scholars have said that man's life (after birth) has four broad stages. The first stage is the stage of continuous growth and development, which begins from 0 to 33 years (the end of youth and the age at which an individual attains full physical and intellectual maturity). The second stage, from 33 to 40, is the stage of constancy in which increase in growth and development is hardly noticeable. The age of 40 is usually considered the stage at which both physical and intellectual ability reach maturity. The third stage is the stage of mid- or proper adulthood (al-kuhulah). From 40 to 60 years man begins to decline physically and mentally though so subtly and steadily that it can hardly be noticed. The last stage, from 60 to the end of life, is the stage of old age and decline (senescence). In this stage decline becomes more obvious and noticeable.19 According to the Qur'ân, human growth and development follow one common pattern which is applicable to every human being. Despite individual differences this pattern applies to every person. The pattern is that every individual grows and develops from initial weakness to strength and then to weakness. In other words, growth and development follow a certain natural inevitable law of rise and fall. That is to say that when the individual gradually reaches the apex of his development, whether physical or cognitive, he then begins to decline gradually. The Qur'ân is very precise about this: It is God Who created you in a state of (helpless) weakness, then gave (you) strength after weakness, then, after strength, gave (you) weakness and a hoary head; He creates as He wills. And it is He Who has all knowledge and power. (30:54) It needs to be emphasized here that this single pattern mentioned in this principle and as demonstrated in this verse is applicable to all human beings. We are all created in a state of weakness. This refers to the early stage of our creation right inside the wombs and up to delivery. We are weak at these early stages both physically and mentally. This weakness at the onset of our life is also mentioned in another place ( Surat al-Nahl) in the Qur'ân but with specific reference to mental weaknesses: And Allah has brought you out from the wombs of your mothers while you know nothing. And He gave you hearing, sight, and hearts that you might give thanks (to Him). (16:78) In several other verses this single and common pattern of early weakness that first characterizes every person's life and then strength in later development is also clearly indicated. For example: We have enjoined on kindness to his parents: In pain did his mother bear him, and in pain did she give him birth. The carrying of the child (in the womb) to his weaning is (a period of) thirty months. At length when he reaches the age of full strength and attains forty years he says, O my Lord? Grant me that I may be grateful for thy favour, which Thou has bestowed upon me, and upon my parents.20 The necessary analogical deduction that can be made from this verse is that each person's life begins in weakness, gradually attains strength, and then gradually declines, just as the first verse under this principle clearly states. The decline is the beginning of a second dimension of weakness that characterizes human life at the end of one's life. And this has also been stated in this verse and several others. This pattern is certainly common to all human beings as it is witnessed in our life experiences. This principle, it should be noted, does not eliminate the fact of individual differences. What is actually meant is that, although this pattern is applicable to all humans, there are always a number of differences among individuals in terms of specific developmental variables and processes. For the purpose of illustration, let us assume that two identical things are born at the same moment. This principle applies to both of them in the sense that they are both helpless, weak, miniature human beings, and both gradually begin to grow and develop until both attain full strength. However, it may be noticed that one may be dark in complexion while another may be light. Again, while one may be fat, the other may be slim. These are some forms of individual differences. They do not however, like all other forms, eliminate the fact of the common pattern of development represented by this principle, just as the principle itself does not wipe away this very fact of individual differences. A more detailed discussion on individual differences in development comes later in this article. Human Development Is a Cumulative and Simultaneous Process If all the verses of the Qur'ân that talk about human development in its various stages are taken together, synthesized, and analyzed, it will be seen that the Qur'ân had postulated that human development is cumulative in nature. That is to say, any new development acquired or attained by the individual adds up to the already existing one. In this way, development builds one aspect upon another up to the fullest stage. The Qur'ân also teaches us that human development is a simultaneously interwoven process. This means that all the aspects of development- physical, mental, social, emotional, moral- are inseparable. Each one reinforces the other. This means that one aspect of development does not wait until another develops to its fullest before it commences. The physical and mental developments of a person for example go together with his social, emotional, and moral development. At each stage, all these aspects increase in growth and maturation proportionally and consecutively, hence, the simultaneous nature of development. Many of the verses that talk about development refer to all its aspects either explicitly or implicitly. But the physical and cognitive aspects of it are especially explicitly tied to each other in several verses of the Qur'ân. This is very clear in several verses quoted earlier. The verse in which Allah describes the two broad stages at the same time contains not only mention of physical development but also that of mental development.21 The same thing applies to the verses in which He mentions, "attainment of full strength" in development and growth.  Undoubtedly, the full strength so attained is not only restricted to physical strength but also necessarily includes all the other aspects of development. This is all the more obvious in the verses where Allah refers to giving orphans their wealth when they attain "full strength." It certainly means both physical and mental development. While physical development as implied in the verse is indisputably more obvious from the word "strength" which immediately signifies physical stature and posture, the mental component is definitely included as it is clearly alluded to by another verse of the Qur'ân: Make trial of orphans until they reach the age of marriage: if then you find sound judgement in them: release their property to them; but consume it not wastefully nor in haste against their growing. (4:6) The mention of age of marriage is a direct reference to physical maturity and growth while sound judgement directly means mental maturity. The fact of the simultaneous nature of growth and development in human life is thus confirmed. However, the Qur'ân also alludes to the fact that some aspects may develop faster than others, thus creating intra-individual differences in development. For example, the individual's physical development may be faster than his mental development or vice versa. The Qur'ân therefore confirms the factor of mental retardation. In this situation, the individual may grow and develop physically but may not grow and develop at the same rate mentally. Allah alludes to this in the following verse where He prescribes recording debt contracts: If the party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable himself to dictate, let his guardian dictate faithfully. (2:282) Several other verses mention these cases of abnormal mental development. Another form of abnormal development has also been mentioned in another verse. This is abnormal language development, which causes speech impairment. In a parabolic and euphemistic description of the disbeliever, this factor is denoted, as it appears in the verse: And Allah puts forward (another) example of two men, one of them dumb, who has no power over anything (disbeliever) and he is a burden on his master; whichever way he direct him, he brings no good. Is such a man equal to one (believer) who commands justice, and is himself on the straight path? (16:76) In actual sense, since the Qur'ân is not a textbook of psychology, only through deductions and inferences can we extract psychological facts from it. This means that it is the apparent significations and connotations of the verses that are taken into consideration, not necessarily the specific contingencies or instances upon which the verses were revealed. And this is an accepted principle in 'Ilmul-Usul. These verses and several others do confirm that abnormality affects some aspects of a person's development, just as it can affect it in its entirety. Human Life (Growth and Development) Transcends Earthly Phenomenal Existence Whereas all the theories of development in modern developmental psychology are confined only to this earthly (temporal) life, the Qur'ân projects human life beyond this life. The Qur'ân considers the present life as the foundation of another life that is permanent and everlasting. Man is going to be transformed into a different form of life whose growth and development are transcendental and divine. Such growth and development, however, may be either in endless bliss or torment. This is why in many of the verses where Allah mentions the stages of human development; He links them directly with the life after death. It shall be a continuation of life in some sorts. For example, in Surat al-Mu'minun Allah enumerates the stages of human development in this earthly life. He follows the preceding verses with a mention of the next life: Man We did create from a quintessence (of clay); then We placed him as (a drop of) sperm in a place of rest firmly fixed; then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood; then of that clot We made a (foetus) lump, then We made out of that lump bones and clothed the bones with flesh; then We developed out of it another creature (or full human being). So blessed be God, the Best to create! After that, at length ye will die. Again, on the Day of Judgement, will ye be raised up. (23:12-16) Therefore, it is clear that for a comprehensive study of man, this aspect of divine life after death should be incorporated. This is because the fear of death and what happens beyond it is inherent in every human being and it has a lot of bearing on man's psychological dispositions and development. Unless this is done, our knowledge about the nature of man will continue to remain primitive and partial. Human Life (Growth & Development) Passes through Certain Critical & Sensitive Periods If some verses and prophetic traditions are studied closely, it will be discovered that Islam has great concern regarding some of the periods and phases of human development. These are essentially the formative period or phases. They lay the foundation upon which later development builds. In this respect the entire prenatal, infancy, childhood, and adolescent periods can all be considered sensitive. The sensitive nature of the prenatal stage for example can be seen in the fact that Muslims have been enjoined to pray, by the Prophet, just when they are about to copulate. This is meant as supplication to Allah for protection from Satan and a sound offering. Soundness here actually means protection from all sorts of ailments that may retard the development and growth of any aspect of the child's life. In the same way, the Qur'ân enjoins Muslims to keep supplicating to Allah for a good offspring before and during pregnancy. And when a child is eventually born, the call to prayer should be made in his ears; it was done and enjoined by the Prophet. In actual fact, the primary concern of all these is the sound moral development of the child. This concern is an indication of the sensitive and critical nature of this period as the root of the later periods. Over and above all these, the Prophet has told us that it was at this period that certain important things of a person's life are decreed by Allah. He tells us that the angel sent to blow the spirit into the foetus is commanded by Allah to write its provisions (rizq), deeds (amal), life span (ajal), and destiny-whether the person will be in goodness or wickedness (sa'Eµd or shaqiy). This decree then runs through a person's life up to the Hereafter. This then makes this period even more sensitive and critical than all the rest since they all depend on it. After birth, the Prophet enjoins Muslims to be very sensitive and careful with the upbringing of their children. Numerous hadith have been reported in this regard. However, another period that is considered very critical and sensitive is the adolescent period. As a period of transition from childhood to adulthood it constitutes a turning point in an individual's life. It is prone to a lot of exuberance, anxieties excitements and temptations. The Prophet has in a number of his traditions made specific references to this stage, which allude to its sensitivity and importance. One example is the hadith in which the Prophet specially mentions seven categories of people that shall be comforted under the shade of the Glorious Throne of Allah. One of them is a young (adolescent) man who grows up in devotion and commitment to the worship of Allah. This hadith alludes to the critical nature of the adolescent period in the sense that, having been full of temptations and exuberance, a young person who resists these temptations deserves to be especially comforted among those who shall attain felicity on the Day of Judgement. Besides the troubles that characterize the adolescent period, some other reasons that make it a critical and sensitive period in an individual's development are its transitional nature and the fact that it marks the beginning of taklif (legal responsibility). From the time the individual attains puberty he shall be held responsible for all his deeds. If he commits any sin it shall be recorded against him. This is indicated in many Prophetic traditions, one of which is: The pen (which records deeds) has been suspended in respect of three people: the child until he attains puberty . . . Whatever can be said regarding the critical and sensitive nature of the adolescent period is summed up in this hadith. In a real sense, from the Islamic perspective, an individual's later life (growth and development) is made or marred at this period. Factors That Influence Development: The Islamic Perspective In the previous discussion, many mentions were made of God being the Creator of all things and having dominion over all things. What this implies is that He has full control over all things because of His omniscience and omnipotence. In many verses of the Qur'ân, He mentions this fundamental fact. Therefore, it means that everything happens in accordance with His absolute will. In other words, He is the ultimate and absolute cause of everything that happens. He says: But you shall not will except as God wills, the Cherisher of the Worlds. (81:29) So, the alternation of day and night, hot and cold seasons, rainy and dry seasons, life and death, the germination of seeds, the blowing of winds, in fact everything is caused by Him and happens by His permission and will. But in spite of this, God has created temporal causes and effects. He governs and directs the universe in accordance with these causes and effects. For example, rain has been made to be one of the causes of seed germination, copulation between male and female has been made to be the cause of pregnancy, hunger has been made to be the cause of eating (eating itself causes satisfaction while eating bad food causes ill health). So, in this phenomenal existence things happen by means of other things. But as far as the Qur'ân is concerned, these myriads of causes and effects are part of God's will. In this regard, the degree, rate, magnitude, and level at which a particular cause brings about an effect is something which absolutely depends on God's will. Thus, the effectiveness of a cause in precipitating a certain result or effect is determined by God's will. On a similar note, therefore, the magnitude of the result of a particular cause itself is determined by God's will. This point is precisely enunciated by Rahman: God is the Creator of the universe, the ultimate reality and the cause of all causes. . . . Everything in the universe follows the law of its Creator (His Law) as He says in the Qur'an: Glorify the name of thy Guardian-Lord Most High; Who hath created, and further, given order and proportion; Who hath ordained laws and granted guidance. (87:1-3) The foregoing analysis has been made as background to the discussion on factors that influence development. And in the light of it (the analysis), it can be seen that Islam recognizes to certain extents the two important factors which fundamentally influence the growth and development of man, namely, heredity and environment. Numerous textual evidences from the Qur'ân and Hadith establish the influence of hereditary and environmental forces on an individual's overall development. But it needs to be emphasized here that the hereditary and environmental influences on the development of a person are themselves subject to the will of God. This means that Islamic psychology does not look at man as a being who is simply subjected to hereditary and environmental forces (i.e., left at their mercy). Islam looks at man as one being among others, who is primarily governed, sustained, guided, and controlled by God's infinite power and will. The forces of heredity and environment which influence man's development are secondary and are, therefore, only mere mediums through which God disposes His Will on man's overall growth and development. For the purpose of clarity, some textual proof from the Qur'ân and Prophetic traditions that confirm the influence of heredity and environment on man's development are given below. After that, some other textual proofs that also establish beyond reasonable doubts the Divine control of man's life and development are also given. Textual Proofs of the Influence of Heredity on Development 1.      Bukhâri and Muslim report on the authority of Anas bin Malik the following: His mother (Anas's mother) Umm Sulaym (one of the female companions of the Prophet) asked the Prophet about a woman seeing a wet dream in her sleep like a man. He answered, "If the woman sees that she should take the obligatory (janabah) bath." Then Umm Salmah (the Prophet's wife who was present) asked shyly, "Does that happen?" The Prophet replied, "Of course it does! Then how does (hereditary) resemblance come about (if it does not happen)? Man's sperm is a white and thick liquid while the woman's egg cell is a thin yellowish liquid. Whichever of the two overcomes the other, the offspring shall resemble him/her." (This version as reported by Muslim.) 2.      Muslim reports on the authority of Thauban, that a Jew came and asked the Prophet numerous questions (in an attempt to challenge the truth of his Prophethood). Among other things, he asked him a question which he (the Jew) claimed nobody could know its answers at that point in time except a true Prophet. The question was about sex determination, i.e., how does it take place? The Prophet gave him the following answer: The male sperm is white and the female ovum is yellowish. If they meet (get fertilized) and the male sperm cells overcome the female's egg cell, the offspring shall bear a male sex by God's permission. And if the female egg cell overcomes the male spermatozoon the offspring shall bear a female sex by God's permission. After the Prophet answered the Jew told him that he spoke the truth and that he is truly a Prophet. Ibn al-Qayyim expounded this hadith further: At the moment of conception (fertilization) two things are involved. These are foremostness and overcoming. The two can happen consecutively, and they can also occur differently. In this regard, if the male sperm cell becomes foremost and still overcomes the female ovum, the offspring shall be male and shall resemble the father. But if the reverse is the case, the offspring shall become female and shall resemble the mother. If, however, one becomes foremost but the other overcomes it, the offspring shall resemble the foremost one and its sex shall be the same with the overcomer, either male or female. Ibn al-Qayyim, however, cautioned that this sexual determination (and any other thing that goes with it) should not be thought of as merely caused by nature. It is an affair which purely depends on God's will. That is why the Prophet said in another authentic hadith that the Angel sent to blow spirit into the foetus asks Allah: O my Lord! Should the sex be male or female? . . . Then God determines it according to His Will and the Angel records it. 3.      It is reported that Lian (one of the Prophet's companions Hilal ibn Umayyah) accused his wife of committing adultery with Shuraikh ibn As-Sahma. The Prophet instructed in the following way: Allow her to deliver, if the child bears so and so traits then he belongs to the accused man. But if the child bears so and so traits the child is then the son of her legitimate husband. The textual evidence leaves no doubt that hereditary endowment takes place. But the ultimate decision of everything depends on God. Heredity, therefore, can influence a person's intellectual development to a certain extent. Textual Proof of the Influence of Environment on Development 1.      A famous evidence in this regard is a hadith in which the Prophet tells us how parents influence the religious, moral, and general psychological socialization and development of their children. This is one of the most glaring textual proofs of environmental influence upon a person. The hadith reads: There is not a newborn child who is not born in state of fitrah (divinely endowed natural disposition of Islam). His parents then make him a Jew (if they are Jews), a Christian (if they are Christians), or a Magian (if they are Magians), just as an animal is born intact. Do you observe any among them that are maimed (at birth)? 2.      In another hadith, the Prophet showed how companionship influences a person's behavior, character, and overall conduct. In a parable, the Prophet said: The similitude of a good companion and a bad companion is like the possessor of musk perfume and a blacksmith. As for the owner of the perfume, he may either give it to you, or you purchase it from him, or at least you may get a pleasing odor from him. But as for the blacksmith, he may either burn your clothes or you get from him a bad displeasing odor. In a metaphorical sense, the Prophet tells us how good companionship influences a person's character to goodness and how bad companionship induces a person to bad conduct. Environment, therefore, really influences a person's overall psychological development, including, of course, cognitive development. Textual Proof of God's Will There is substantial evidence that shows that heredity or environment per se do not in themselves determine an individual's pattern of development; ultimately, everything depends on God's will. The most striking example of this is the story of Jesus, son of Mary. God made him talk in his cradle. As we all know, language development is an integral part of cognitive development. Under normal circumstances children begin to talk around the age of two by rattling and in that way they continue to develop vocabulary. That Jesus talked in his cradle reveals God's power. It was not actually a hereditary endowment, neither was it a product of an "intellectually stimulating" environment. It was simply a manifestation of God's Wisdom, His infinite power, will, and ability to do all things. The Qur'ân narrates this incident in several verses. First of all the Qur'ân narrates to us how Mary was foretold that her son would talk in his cradle. The verse reads: He shall speak unto mankind in his cradle and in his manhood and he shall be one of those brought near (unto Allah). (2:46) And while narrating the full story, the Qur'ân says: At length she brought the (babe) to her people, carrying him (in her arms). They said: O Mary! Truly an amazing thing hast thou brought. O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a man of evil, nor thy mother a woman unchaste! But she pointed to the babe. They said: How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle? He (the child) said: I am indeed a servant of God; He hath given me revelation and made me a Prophet; And (He) hath made me blessed wheresoever I be, and hath enjoined on me prayer and charity wherever I be; (He) hath made me kind to my mother, and not over bearing or miserable; So peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die, and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again)! Such was Jesus the son of Mary: (It is) a statement of truth, about which they (vainly) dispute; It is not befitting to (the Majesty of) God that He should beget a son. Glory be to Him! When He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be," and it is. (19:27-35) In a hadith reported by various hadith reporters including Bukhari, the Prophet has told us that this kind of miraculous incident did not only happen in the case of Jesus alone. He said it happened to two other persons, who also spoke in cradle. He said, "three people talked in their cradle." He first of all mentioned Jesus. And then he mentioned the rest of the two. One of them was also a newly born baby who spoke to exonerate a saint (Juraiju) who was mischievously and falsely accused of impregnating a whore, the result of which was the birth of that very child. The child spoke and said his father was the cattle rearer who used to rear his cattle around a mountain close to Juraiju's sanctuary. Another child who spoke in his cradle was the child who spoke in response to the prayer of his mother when she prayed that God would make her son to be like one gorgeously dressed, arrogant rich man and that the child not be like one wretched, destitute lady who was falsely accused of theft and was also mischievously molested as a result of the false accusation. Both of them passed by her while she was breast feeding the child. In the first case the child turned his head and looked at the man then he said, "O God! Make me not like him." Also in the second case, he turned his head and looked at the woman and he said, "O God! Make me like her. What these verses teach us is that, while heredity and environment are indisputable factors that influence man's development, a third, more significant and dominant factor exists. This is the factor of God's infinite will and power. It is the factor which monitors and polices the extent to which the nature-nurture forces influence man's life and development. This is applicable to all aspects of development. The examples given above are specifically relevant to cognitive development. Thus, cognitive development is neither merely a product of genetic inheritance per se, nor a product of environment per se. It is primarily a product of God's will and power. In this regard, hereditary and environmental forces are simply the medium through which God disposes the pattern of an individual's development. Therefore, these two factors have certain limitations in their influence on a person's overall psychological disposition. Such limitations themselves are predetermined by God. It is necessary to recognize this factor in psychological studies. A lot of things do happen in man's life which cannot be attributable or ascribable to either heredity or environment (like the above examples). Therefore, such things cannot be explained within the confines of material or empirical investigations and explanations. Unless psychologists widen the horizons of their approach to the study of man by recognizing the factor of God's Divine will and omnipotence upon everything, including human psychological development, psychological research will remain incomplete and our knowledge about ourselves will remain equally incomplete. The role of God's Will in determining an individual's development as recognized by the Islamic approach will help in understanding or explaining the process of development better than the Western approach in a number of ways. Some of them are: a. That not all psychological constructs and tendencies can strictly be attributed to the mere influences of heredity and environment. b. That as a result of the above reason, individuals sometimes exhibit certain tendencies that clearly defy explanations in terms of hereditary or environmental influences. The case of the speech of Jesus and others in their cradles is a clear testimony to this. In this regard, if this is not attributed to the Will of God, only conjectures would be used to explain this fact. The Qur'anic View on Individual Differences in Development Considering the fact that God's will varies on the particular creation of each individual, it is safe to assert that individual differences are a predetermined matter in human existence. Individual differences are subject to God's will and subsequently depend on hereditary endowment and the influences of environment. God tells us in the Qur'ân that He creates and fashions every person in his mother's womb in a distinct and unique way/form as He wishes: O man! What has seduced thee from thy Lord, Most Beneficent? Him Who created thee, fashioned thee in due proportion, and gave thee a just bias. In whatever form He wills, does He put thee together. (82:6-8) He it is Who shapes you in the wombs as He pleases; there is no god but He, the Exalted in Might, the Wise. (3:6) These verses denote that since every individual is fashioned in his mother's womb by God in a peculiar and unique form, individuals are bound to be different in all their physio-psychological dispositions. This is the basic factor behind individual differences among people. Furthermore, and in clearer terms, God has told us in the Qur'ân that we are different from one another in our traits, characters, behaviors, and conduct: Say! Every one acts according to his own disposition. But your Lord knows best who it is that is best guided on the way. (17:84) This verse means that every single individual has a unique disposition. Such uniqueness may be manifested in terms of physical, cognitive, emotional, moral, and social characteristics. The Qur'ân, therefore, recognizes that there are individual differences among men not only in terms of cognitive development but also in other aspects of development. Because of this recognition, one finds that individual differences are perfectly taken care of, even in some Qur'ânic commands and exhortations toward obeying God's injunctions and also in the discharge of His obligations. A typical example is the verse in which God exhorts us to obey His rules, as far as we can, both individually and collectively: So fear God as much as you can; listen and obey, and spend in charity for the benefit of your souls. (64:16) In the above verse, God addresses us both individually and collectively. Each individual or group of individuals is expected to fear God and obey Him as far as he can bear it individually. This is the meaning that is conveyed by the following verse: On no soul doth God place a burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good that it earns, and suffers every ill that it earns. (2:286) Commenting on the above verse, Zaydan and Hash-Shash said, "This verse is a divine indication to the prevalence (existence) of individual differences among mankind.34 So, Islam treats every individual in his own unique and distinct disposition. This establishes beyond any reasonable doubt that there are bound to be differences among individuals in all aspects of their psychological traits and characteristics. This invariably includes cognitive characteristics. But the verse in which Allah clearly alludes to individual differences among people is the following verse. Such differences include intellectual disparities, among others. The verse reads: And We raise some of them (mankind) above others in ranks, so that some may command work from others. (43:32) According to Ibn Kathir, God explains in this verse that He created disparities among His creatures (mankind) in terms of what He has endowed them with-wealth, intellect, understanding, and the like-which pertains to both the outward and the inward abilities. In practical terms, the Prophet used to take care of individual differences among his companions through his interactions with them by teaching, responding to questions, and in general dealings with them. He used to assign responsibilities to people according to their respective suitabilities to such responsibilities. He considered such differences in almost everything, including prayers. For example, with regards to leading people in prayers the Prophet used to instruct his companions to take into cognizance the differences which exist among people. He used to instruct them in the following way: If anyone of you leads a people in prayer he should shorten it. For among them there are the young, the old, the weak and the ones disturbed by the call of nature. But if he prays alone, then let him pray as he wishes (according to his capability). With regards to teaching people, the Prophet used to take care of their peculiarities. He used to take care of their level of intellectual and social development. In that way he instructs or teaches a person according to his mentality and social background. The following are very good examples of this Prophetic method of teaching: 1.      'Aisha, one of the Prophet's wives, was reported as having said that the Prophet did not speak superfluously and carelessly as other people do. He used to talk to people in a careful manner, repeating the points which needed to be repeated or emphasized so that every listener understood him. 2.      The Prophet considered people's social and intellectual background when he addressed them. It is reported that a delegation came to him from Yemen . When he addressed them, he used the language (dialect) they would understand, which was different from the one spoken by his people (of Hijaz). In that way he used to try to interact with people. 3.      The Prophet used to react or give answers to individuals in accordance with their intellectual and social dispositions. He would give different answers to seemingly similar questions and would react differently to the seemingly same action done by different people. For example, a Bedouin came into the Prophet's mosque and urinated. His action showed that he had a low intellectual and social development. The Prophet's companions became harsh with him and started shouting at him. But considering his peculiar intellectual and social background, the Prophet cautioned them saying: (Deal with him) gently. You have been sent to be lenient with people and not (indiscriminately) harsh. The Prophet then ordered that water be poured on the place urinated on. After that, the Prophet called him and explained to him gently in accordance to his mentality. The man became extremely pleased by the Prophet's treatment of him. So much so, that when he prayed and was supplicating, he said, "O Allah! Have mercy on me and Muhammad, and do not have mercy on any other person besides us." The Prophet smiled at him and said, "O! You have narrowed that which is wide." When the man went back to his people, he said, "I have come to you from the best of mankind. 4.      Whenever the Prophet wanted to send some of his companions to teach people in other places, he would give them some advice which has some bearing on individual differences. For example, he used to say: Be lenient with people and do not be harsh. Encourage (and do not) discourage or dismiss people. 5.      Finally, it was reported that the Prophet used to advise his companions in the following way: Speak to men according to their mental capacities, for if you speak all things to all men, some cannot understand you, and so fall into errors. It is also pertinent to specifically address the issue of differences between the psychological development of male and female children. The Qur'ân has certainly told us that males and females are not the same: And the male is not like the female. (3:36) The difference referred to in this verse is of a wide range. Essentially it refers to the differences in biological postures and psychological tendencies. There is no doubt that men and women have different biological postures and traits that create a number differences in their respective developmental patterns. The growth spurt of girls in the adolescent stage has been discovered to be faster than that of boys. In another dimension there is certainly a very strong relationship between biology and psychology. Biological processes do really affect and influence psychological tendencies. As long as males and females have certain variant biological components and postures, variation in their psychological tendencies and dispositions is inevitable. Conclusion An attempt has been made in this paper to reveal some of the fundamental differences that exist between the Islamic approach to developmental psychology and the Western secular approach. Beginning with a critique of the epistemological and methodological paradigms and frameworks of Western social and behavioral sciences in general, the distinctive Islamic paradigm, which is based on the Tawhidi episteme, was propounded. Based on this epistemological framework an attempted exposition of the basic principles of Islamic developmental psychology was made. With sufficient references from the Qur'ân and Sunnah as the Muslim's Absolute Reference Frame, 39 the fundamental differences between the Islamic and Western approaches were clearly expounded and illustrated. In a similar manner, other important issues related to development like the factors, which affect it, and the phenomenon of individual differences were discussed and analyzed. This attempt has certainly suggested a marked deviation from the conventional approach. A very important element in this Islamic approach which more than any other thing makes it differ from the dominant Western approach is the fact that in the former case God's Will is the central and dominant factor in human development. In the latter case everything is explained within the limited confines of the nature-nurture (hereditary and environment) paradigm. This latter approach in view of the Islamic model is certainly reductionist and cannot lead to perfect understanding of human nature and development. Because there are sharp contradictions between the Islamic and Western models, primarily due to Muslim belief in the indispensability of the Qur'ân and Sunnah, and finally due to the differences between Muslim and Western societies, it must be concluded that it is grossly inappropriate to use Western development theories in Muslim societies. It is also futile or even absurd to keep upholding the Western theories with all their glaring weaknesses, inadequacies, and incompatibilities. It therefore becomes necessary and imperative to propound a more comprehensive adequate and accurate approach. The Islamic approach is certainly one for it can assuredly redeem mankind from misery occasioned by the mechanistic and materialist view of man. It will actually widen our scope of understanding of human developments without any claim of perfection. Footnotes 1. G. R. Lefrancois, Of Children: An Introduction to Child Development (Belmont: Wadsworth, 1973). 2. See Omar K. Khaleefa, "The Imperialism of Euro-American Psychology in a non-Western Culture: An Attempt toward an Ummatic Psychology," The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol.14, no.1 (1997): 50. 3. See Mona Abdul-Fadl, "Contemporary Social Theory: Tawhidi Projections," The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol. 2, no.3 (1994): 316. 4. Malik Badri, The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists (London: MWH Publishers, 1979). 5. Mona Abul-Fadl, "Contemporary Social Theory," 317. Ibid., 326. 6. Alexis Carrel, Al-Insan Dhalika al-Majhul (Man: The Unknown). 7. Abul-Fadl, "Contemporary Social Theory," 327. 8. L. S. Hearnshaw, The Shaping of Modern Psychology: An Historical Introduction (London: Routledge, 1987). 9. Harris, Kelvin, Education and Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), 5-27; cited in Suleiman, 10. Said, "Islamization of Knowledge: A Working Concept and Implementation Strategies," an unpublished seminar paper, Muslim Forum Islamization of Knowledge Seminar Series, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria 1998. 11. Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, "Islamizing the Social Sciences," in Social and Natural Sciences: Islamic Perspective, edited by I. R. al-Faruqi (Jeddah: King Abdul-Aziz University, 1977), 12. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Hassan Langgulung, "Research in Psychology: Toward an Ummatic Paradigm," in Toward Islamization of the Disciplines (Herndon, Va.: IIIT, 1989), 115-116. 15. Ibid., 116. 16. Harris, Education, 2 17. Badri, The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists 18. Reported by Bukhari on the authority of Abullah ibn Mas'ud on the beginning of creation, in the chapter "Mention of the Angel," vol. 41, Hadith No. 549. 19. Abubakar Mahmoud Gummi, Radd al-Adhhan ila-Ma'an al-Qur'an (a commentary of the Qur'an) (Beirut: Dar al-Arabiyyah, 1982). 20. Surah al-Ahqaf (46:15). Other chapters and verses in which this attainment of full strength after weakness is mentioned are 40:67; 22:5; 17:34; 28:14; and 12:22. 21. See note (18) above. 22. That is the Science of Jurisprudence in Islam. The Principle referred to here is that which says: "Al-Itibar bi Umum al-Lafz la bi khusus al-ma'ana," i.e., Consideration can be made in juristic decisions to general meaning and implications of phrases or statements, in addition to their specific connotations. 23. A hadith reported by both Bukhari and Muslim on the authority of Abdullahi ibn Abbas. 24. See Surah al-Ahqaf (46), verse 15 25. A hadith reported by Abu Dawud, Tirmidhi, and Hakim, on the authority of Abu Rafi. 26. See note (19) above. 27. Ibid, x. 28. Sabra, "The Astronomical Origin of Ibn al-Haytham's Concept of Experiment, 136. 29. Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology; Brennan, History and Systems of Psychology; 30. H. Kendler, Historical Foundations of Modern Psychology (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); D. Schultz, A History of Modern Psychology, 3rd ed. (Orland: Academic Press, 1981). Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology. 31. G. Fechner, Elements of Psychophysics, translated by H. Adler, edited by D. Howes and E. Boring (New York: Holt, Rinhart and Winston, 1860). 32. Brennan, History and Systems of Psychology, 155. 33. Fechner, Elements of Psychophysics, 10. 34. Ibid., xxvii. 35. Ibid., 10. 36. Ibid., xxviii. 37. Ibid., xxix. 38. Schultz, A History of Modern Psychology, 54. 39. Fechner, Elements of Psychophysics, xxix. 40. Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology, 283. 41. Fechner, Elements of Psychophysics. 42. Ibid., xxiv. 43. Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology, 293. 44. Ibid; Brennan, History and Systems of Psychology; Kendler, Historical Foundations of Modern Psychology. 45. A. Sabra, "Sensation and Inference in Alhazen's Theory of Visual Perception," in Studies in Perception: Interrelations in the History of Philosophy and Science, edited by Peter Machamer and R. Turnbull (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1978), 160-161. Sabra, Commentary to Ibn al-Haytham's Optics, xii Source: http://www.islamic-world.net/psychology/psy.php?ArtID=178 published in www.crescentlife.com

 

The Poverty of the Heart

Author: Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee Last night my teacher taught me the lesson of Poverty: Having nothing and wanting nothing. Rumi  The Sufi Path takes the Wayfarer beyond the world of forms into the formless, beyond the mind into the heart. On this journey every desire is a limitation. An intending disciple said to Dhol-Nun the Egyptian: "Above everything in this world I wish to enroll in the Path of Truth."  Dhol-Nun told him: "You can accompany our caravan only if you first accept two things. One is that you will have to do things that you do not want to do. The other is that you will not be permitted to do things that you desire to do. It is 'wanting' which stands between man and the Path of Truth."  Those who travel along this path are known in the East as "dervish" (darwish in modern Persian), a term which refers to their holy poverty: "the poor man is not he whose hand is empty of provisions, but he whose nature is empty of desires." This is a state of both helplessness and freedom, for the Wayfarer, without desire or direction, has nowhere to go.  If everything must be given up, then even the desire for spiritual progress is a limitation. The road that seemed to lead to a far distant horizon is seen as just another illusion.  For the seeker who has followed the path of longing and placed all his values in the idea of the quest, it can be very hard to give up this last attachment.  But not only must this world be given up; any idea of spiritual transformation must also be abandoned.  Such total poverty is the real patched coat of the Sufi. A dervish wearing a sackcloth coat and woolen cap once came to meet Master Abu Ali. One of Abu Ali's disciples tried to humour him, saying, "How much did you purchase that sackcloth for?" The dervish answered, "I purchased it for the sum of the world. I was offered the hereafter in exchange, but refused to trade." Spiritual poverty is to be totally naked, to be a formless piece of wax in which He can stamp His Name. Because this state is beyond desire, poverty cannot be sought.  Like everything that belongs to Him, it is given as a gift.  The path takes the wayfarer to where he can travel no further and is left in a state of desolation and hopelessness.  Then, when the seeker accepts there is nowhere else to go -- when the path seems to lead to a total dead end -- then there is freedom, freedom born from the deep realization that there is nothing one can do. It is in this newfound emptiness that spiritual life really begins.   excerpt from Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee;  The Call and the Echo: Sufi Dreamwork & the Psychology of the Beloved

  
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